The Macro-Gunwinyguan languages, also called Arnhem or Gunwinyguan, are a family of Australian Aboriginal languages spoken across eastern Arnhem Land in northern Australia. Their relationship has been demonstrated through shared morphology in their verbal inflections.

Many of the languages have a fortis–lenis contrast in plosive consonants. Lenis/short plosives have weak contact and intermittent voicing, while fortis/long plosives have full closure, a more powerful release burst, and no voicing.[citation needed]

Languages

Rebecca Green (2004) reconstructed the paradigms of 28 Proto-Arnhem verbs. The languages included by Green are as follows, though Green only accepts Maningrida as a demonstrated branch:

*Green does not address Anindilyakwa, Alawa, or Yugul. Yugul is too poorly attested for comparison based on her methods; the other two await validation.

This is close to what Evans (1997) proposed under the name Gunwinyguan (cf. his very different proposal of Arnhem Land languages).

Marra, Warndarrang, Alawa, and Mangarrayi have been argued to constitute a Marran family of considerable time depth (Sharpe 2008).

Heath (1990) demonstrated an East Arnhem family of Ngandi + Nunggubuyu, to which Enindhilyagwa was added (as a closer relative to Nunggubuyu) by Van Egmond (2012).

However, Green (2003) argues that only Maningrida has been established as a valid subgroup, and that the interrelationships of the other languages are as yet unclear. The evidence for Gunwinyguan and perhaps other nodes listed above may simply be reflections of a relationship of all Arnhem languages when only a subset of them was investigated. That is, these groups may be based on shared retentions of Proto-Arnhem rather than distinct historical developments. (However, in reviewing Green, Evans pointed out that much of the Maningrida morphology was also shared by Mangarrayi.) An agnostic view of the family would list each language separately, except for the established Maningrida branch:

Kungarakany, Mangarrayi, Marra, Maningrida, Ngalakgan, Bininj Kunwok (Gunwinggu), Warndarrang, Uwinymil, Gaagudju, Dalabon, Kunbarlang, Rembarrnga, Nunggubuyu, Jawoyn, Warray, Ngandi

Yangmanic, including Wardaman, had once been included in Gunwinyguan, but has been removed from recent classifications.

External classification

Evans (1997) proposes that these languages are related to Pama–Nyungan in a family he calls Macro-Pama–Nyungan, but this has not yet been demonstrated.

In 2003, he proposed that they are also related to the Eastern Daly languages.

Vocabulary

Capell (1940) lists the following basic vocabulary items for the Gunwinyguan languages:

gloss GunwingguGunbarlangNgaɖi man biniṉgiɖimargŋarga woman muli‘muliŋbaramimbaṉgandar head gungɔidjgɔidjgɔidjwaːlu eye gunminwumumilba nose gungɛbwumɛːlimulju mouth gundaŋdjaːɖɛɽlira tongue gundjɛnŋaːgdjälaṉ stomach gunjanmugmaɳɖidjaːla bone gunmuruŋgɛːgɛggidji blood gungulbamoɭobindjugän kangaroo gɔɳɔbɔlɔgoːindjädji opossum djɛːbuigundärbudjaŋana emu gurugaijumaɳɖɛb crow waːgdjidaːwundjäŋilga fly bɔːdmogŋurin sun gunduŋgaːnagbɽaŋu moon diːdwuranajagan fire gunɽagwiɖidjwaɭu smoke gundɔlŋwungawugundjuru water gunɽɔinnjunjugŋaba

Capell (1942) lists the following additional basic vocabulary items for the Gunwinyguan languages:

glossSouthern GunwingguMuralidbanAndiljaugwaNunggubuyuWandarangNgandiRainbarngoBuanGundangbon man bininbininnanamamaljanawarinjuŋnawaɽijinijulbiːjawurinbiji woman dalugŋalwareːrulgwudáriŋgaŋaramaninjuŋŋiwoibinamanaŋdiŋ‘giɖigiɖgirigidj head gungoidjgungoidanariŋgajinagwugululugulaŋdjaragɔidjgɔidj eye gunmiːmgunmiːmmeːnbabagaɭamamaguɽmaŋandjulagaindjuljamïmïmumu nose gungəbgungəbamindajɔmɔːrwundjíribagwijibangiːjadjɛːdjɛː mouth gundaŋgundaŋadiraɽamadanwuŋaːndalgudaguladiːjälŋdaːləːdalugaɽa‘ tongue gundjengundjenaljäljigbalaːnwudjijilgudälŋdiːjälŋdɛldjɛn stomach gunjamgunmelemmulgwaŋuɖanwuŋandjamowaragiːnaguːŋu‘ bone gunmuruŋgunmuruŋadidiraŋagaɽawuŋaɽagaguŋaɽagabalmanamɔːmɔː blood gungulbagungulbameːrawulaŋmaŋulidjimabaɳgogulbanaguraidjgulba kangaroo goɳobologundagijuburádaŋargọmulbiamulbiabulaidj-bulaidjguiṉguiṉ opossum djɛːbuidurijuguŋbajirgiajirginaɖawamarŋoduguladugula emu gurugaijuwajinŋiwuruganawurbanŋuroɖoŋuroɖo crow waːgwaːgjiŋwawɔːwagwaɽgwaɽgawa‘wawa‘wa‘wa‘wa‘wa‘wa‘ fly bɔːdbɔːdjuwamaamunawamunabɔdbuadmɔɽbɔːd sun gunduŋŋalbɛnbemamaːwuraaɭirŋinguŋarumawaɭirmudawalirbɛbagar moon diːɖdiːɖjimaːwuralabamanadaŋadaŋanigurŋagurŋadiɖgurŋa fire gunaggunagaŋuɽaŋuɽawuŋamburgudaŋiŋuɽamimälmimäl smoke gundɔlŋgundɔlŋaŋwarawuŋubanwundulargubándɔːɭŋdɔlgnɔdjunör water gogogunɽɔːṉaguŋwaagogowuŋaladjagujärgdjulawaːwaː

Proto-language

Below are some reconstructed Proto-Gunwinyguan (i.e., Proto-Gunwinyguan proper) animal and plant names from Harvey (2003):

Proto-Gunwinyguan animal names no.glossProto-Gunwinyguan 8gudgeon sp.*cakorlk 10centipede*calarr 18death adder*campVn/rn 26frill-necked lizard*cangkurr 31quoll*cappo 32long-horned grasshopper*cappurtenyqrteny 35crayfish*carla 38jabiru*carnarran 39whimbrel*carnpalcarnpal 42water goanna*carrkka 44female agile wallaby*carrurtrtu 49green tree frog*catngerecngerec 53koel*cawok 70rifle fish*cetperte 77willy wagtail*cikirricikirric 80whistleduck*cilikuypi 96quail*cirrirnrti(t) 102bony bream*cirrpili 103whistleduck*cirrpiyuk 105scorpion*co(wo)c 107hornet*cokparl 108carpet snake*cokpiny 121nail-tailed wallaby*cotet 127water goanna*cucca 128female black wallaby*cukerre 138bowerbird*curerrk 139kingfisher sp.*curk 142black-headed python*curn 143rock wallaby*curnrtupolq 145taipan*currang 148tawny frogmouth, owl sp.*currul 152kangaroo rat*Cakot 154fishtail palm*Calmarr 173tawny frogmouth*Cawarl 178willy wagtail*Ciningkirric 215jabiru*kanci 230bony bream*karlarlppa 232Long Tom fish*karlerrq 237black cockatoo*karnamarr 238black flying fox*karnampal 239emu, large feathers on emu*karnanganyca 241big bandicoot*karnma 249dingo*karnrteken 253black cockatoo*karrak 255spoonbill*karral/rla 264goshawk*karrkkany 275dingo*kawirVq 276nankeen night heron*kawk 277friarbird*kaworlk 336kookaburra*korrowkkorrow 344echidna*kowarrang 347freshwater crocodile*koyow 353emu*kulppiny 359tawny frogmouth*kuluyqkuluy 364blue-tongue lizard*kungar(l)ak 369black-headed python*kunungu 374paperbark sp.*kurlkurl 378ibis sp.*kurnrtirnrtirn 384blue-tongue lizard*kurri 385blue-tongue lizard*kurrmul/rlu 388olive python*kurrucartu 405saltwater crocodile*kVngV 408kookaburra*kVrVwVk 417sugar glider*Lampalk 433spotted bream*Leppal 442black cockatoo*Lirrapin 448butcherbird*Lopolopo 464black-headed python*maccurn 467pelican*makkakkurr 485echidna*manappurn 495centipede*marla 511water goanna*marrampal 523friarbird*martawk 528barramundi*martpiny 530barramundi*martukkal 561blue-tongue lizard*milqtarl 570barramundi*mirricci 586blue-tongue lizard*morlel 598rainbow serpent*muc 617spoonbill*muqmu 625flying fox*murru 637frogmouth*Na-cik 639barramundi*Namarnkorl 644black flying fox*Nangamung 645saltwater crocodile*Nangkurru 664grey-crowned babbler*ngakngak 667white corella*ngalelek 684white cockatoo*ngarrac 685saratoga*ngarrayarl 687short-necked turtle*ngart 690rifle fish*ngatpan 702white cockatoo*ngerrk 756tree rat; quoll*pakkaci 801spotted nightjar*parnangka 807kookaburra*parraca 808darter (bird sp.)*parrakparrak 812black wallaroo*parrk 820march fly*partrti 824pelican*paya 827file snake*pekka 831gecko spp.*pelerrk 839bustard*penuk 845plover*perrepperrep 846rainbow bee-eater*perrertperrert 847masked plover*pettelerrelerre 850file snake*piccirri 856galah*pilkpilk 866barramundi*pirlmu 873glossy ibis*pirnrtu 887archer fish*poccalk 904water python*porlokko 906brolga*pornorrong 915velvet-tailed gecko*poywek 923pheasant*pukpuk 932ghost bat*pumapuma 934file snake*punupun 941water goanna*purarr 954water python*purrurtci 963red-eyed pigeon*rakul 976Torresian imperial pigeon*rumuq 981sand goanna*Talak 997black cockatoo*Tarrapiya 1009plover*Tetterran 1012dollar bird*Tewtew 1020peewee*Tirlkrtirlk 1024moon; moon snake*Tirt 1025wedge-tailed eagle*Tiwana 1034rock wallaby*Torriya 1045ring-tailed possum*Tukula 1049bony bream*Tulukkurr 1067green tree frog*thakparrarraq 1093Long Tom fish*thumpi 1097bandicoot*thungkaq 1100king brown snake*T(h)atpe 1115crow*wakwak 1123bustard*walppurrungku 1171butcherbird*warrkcirt 1196rainbow fish*werec 1206possum*wirik 1216bird sp.; rainbow bee-eater; kingfisher; whipbirds*wirritwirrit 1217black-faced cuckooshrike*wirriwirriyak 1231cockroach*wor(o)cwor(o)c 1244possum sp.*wumpu 1274yabby*yarr 1291bird sp.; mopoke; kite*yerr/riny 1303water rat*yirrkkup 1314lightning; rain; Leichhardt's grasshopper [seen in wet season]*yurr

Proto-Gunwinyguan plant names no.glossProto-Gunwinyguan 2Grevillea pteridifolia*caca ~ *yacca 12spinifex*calng 30wattle sp.*capec 36king brown snake*carlung 40banyan*carnqpa 54water lily stem*cawqcaw 60Grevillea sp.*cenkererr 63milkwood*cenycok 67pandanus mat*cerrpe 82Capparis umbonata*ciliwirn 85Pandanus aquaticus*cimcim 93mistletoe*cirnirrin/ny 141lancewood*curluq 223ironwood*kappay 235freshwater mangrove*karlngka/iny 236wattle sp., woomera type*karlppu 244Acacia sp.*karnpirr 258spinifex sp.*karrarnrtalk 278tree sp., Gardenia megasperma, Capparis umbonata*kayapam 321plant sp., bush potato*kongkong 329Planchonia careya*korlq 334pandanus husk*korrmo 341paperbark*kot 345paperbark humpy, bark of stringybark*kowk 377black plum*kurnrtalq 379Flacourtia territorialis*kurnrtun/rn 398Terminalia grandiflora*kutt/rtrtu 402Banksia dentata*kuypuk 431Opilia amentacea*Leklek 461wild passionfruit*ma(rt)rtawk 482Canthium lucidum*mamtak 513palm sp., Cycas media*marrappi 527eucalyptus sp.*martpa 529paperbark, deep coolamon*martu 576nut of pandanus*moc 599coolibah*muccu 602paperbark sp.*mul/rlmu 604conkerberry*mululuk 607ironwood*mulyurruny 627black currant*murrungkurn 677eucalyptus sp.*ngapak 689cycad*ngaththu 704black currant*ngik 708pandanus sp.*ngokngo 711river red gum*ngolongkoq 776Ficus opposita*pampul/rla 802Owenia vernicosa*parnarr 825green plum*pe/irrke/iq 826quinine tree*pecca 843eucalyptus sp.*pernpern 865Acacia holosericea*pirliwirli 880tea tree*pirtippirti 896Dalabon*pon 898wattle sp.*pongka 925paperbark sp.*pul(p)pul 935clump of bamboo; Bambusa arnhemica*-puny 953Cassytha filiformis*purrurnpurrurn 955Xanthostemon paradoxus*purt/lu 958tree sp. - Brachychiton diversifolium*putput 962paperbark*rakkalaq 971pandanus*rok 977ridge; blacksoil area; grass used in corroborees*ruwurr 999Phragmites*Tarrin 1058Leichhardt tree*Tupal 1089quinine brush*thorrowq 1091Acacia holosericea*thukkul 1095Canthium attenuatum, Exocarpos latifolius*thumuk 1096bloodwood*thumurluk 1101pandanus*T(h)ayarr 1154vine sp. - Cynanchum pedunculatum*warnpek 1169plant sp.; Exocarpos latifolus; lemon grass*warrinycalan 1181Grevillea pteridifolia*watpar 1239black plum*wucal 1259pandanus*yakngarra