Classification of Arabic languages

In linguistics, the Arabic language can be divided into several historical and geographical categories, namely Old Arabic (spoken in pre-Islamic times), the literary varieties Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic, and the various modern dialects.

Classifying the position of Arabic within the group of Semitic languages has long been an active area of research.

Views on Arabic classification

Historically, the Semitic languages originated in a relatively small geographic area (Syria, Mesopotamia, and Arabia) and often spoken in contiguous regions. Permanent contacts between the speakers of these languages facilitated borrowing between them. Borrowing disrupts historical processes of change and makes it difficult to reconstruct the genealogy of languages.

Traditionally, Arabic was classified as belonging to the Southwest Semitic group of languages, based on some affinities with Modern South Arabian and Geʽez.

Most scholars eventually rejected the Southwest Semitic subgrouping because it is not supported by any linguistic innovations and because shared features with South Arabian and Ethiopic were only due to areal diffusion.

In 1976, linguist Robert Hetzron classified Arabic as a Central Semitic language:

John Huehnergard, Aaron D. Rubin, and other scholars suggested subsequent modifications to Hetzron's model:

However, several scholars, such as Giovanni Garbini, consider that the historical–genetic interpretation is not a satisfactory way of representing the development of the Semitic languages (contrary to Indo-European languages, which spread over a wide area and were usually isolated from each other). Edward Ullendorff even thinks it is impossible to establish any genetic hierarchy between Semitic languages. These scholars prefer a purely typological–geographical approach without any claim to a historical derivation.

For instance, in Garbini's view, the Syrian Desert was the core area of the Semitic languages where innovations came from. This region had contacts between sedentary settlements—on the desert fringe—and nomads from the desert. Some nomads joined settlements, while some settlers became isolated nomads ("Bedouinisation"). According to Garbini, this constant alternation explains how innovations spread from Syria into other areas. Isolated nomads progressively spread southwards and reached South Arabia, where the South Arabian language was spoken. They established linguistic contacts back and forth between Syria and South Arabia and their languages. That is why Garbini considers that Arabic does not belong exclusively to either the Northwest Semitic languages (Aramaic, Phoenician, Hebrew, etc.) or the South Semitic languages (Modern South Arabian, Geʽez, etc.) but that it was affected by innovations in both groups.

There is still no consensus regarding the exact position of Arabic within Semitic languages. The only consensus among scholars is that the various Arabic dialects spoken today exhibit common features with both South (South Arabian, Ethiopic) and the North (Canaanite, Aramaic) Semitic languages, and that it also contains unique innovations.

There is no consensus among scholars whether Arabic diglossia (between Classical Arabic and Arabic vernaculars) was the result of the Islamic conquests and due to the influence of non-Arabic languages or whether it was already the natural state in 7th-century Arabia (which means that both types coexisted in the pre-Islamic period).

Modern spoken Arabic varieties

Dutch linguist Kees Versteegh has classified modern Arabic varieties as follows:

• Arabic Syro-Palestinian (Levantine) Western Damascus Arabic Cilician All Lebanese dialects. Versteegh notes that Cypriot Arabic is usually included in this group although it also has North Mesopotamian features. Northern: includes Aleppo Arabic Southern Urban Palestinian Central Palestinian South Palestinian and Jordanian, including the Hauran Peninsular Western (Hijazi): various Bedouin dialects in Hejaz and Tihamah Northeastern (Najdi) Anazi: Kuwaiti, Sunni Bahraini, and Gulf Arabic Shammari: various Bedouin dialects in southern Iraq Syro-Mesopotamian Bedouin: various Bedouin dialects of south Syria and Jordan Northwestern: various dialects spoken in the Negev, Sinai, southern Jordan and some regions in north-western Saudi Arabia Southern Yemeni: Sanaani, Hadhrami and Ta'izzi-Adeni Shiite Bahraini Omani Mesopotamian Northern (Qeltu) Tigris Jewish Baghdadi and Christian Baghdadi Euphrates Anatolian Jugari (nearly extinct) Southern (Gilit) Muslim Baghdadi Khuzestani Egypto-Sudanese Chadian Bagirmi: Nigeria, Cameroon, and part of Chad Urban Chadian: including N’Djamena and Abbéché Sudanese Juba Nubi Egyptian Cairene Nile Delta: various eastern (Sharqia) and western varieties Middle Egypt: Giza to Asyut Sa'idi Between Asyut and Nag Hammadi Between Nag Hammadi and Qena Between Qena and Luxor Between Luxor and Esna Maghrebi Pre-Hilalian Eastern: Libya, Tunisia (including Judeo-Tunisian), eastern Algeria Western: western Algeria and Morocco Maltese Andalusian (extinct) Hilalian: Bedouin dialects of North Africa Sulaym: Libyan and southern Tunisia Eastern: central Tunisia and eastern Algeria Algerian (Saharan) Western: Chaoui confederations in Casablanca-Settat Hassaniya

See also

• Arab (disambiguation)
• Etymology of Arab
• Varieties of Arabic

Notes

Sources

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