Jicaquean languages
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Jicaquean, also known as Tolan, is a small language family of Honduras. There are two attested Jicaquean languages, Tol (Eastern Jicaque) and Western Jicaque (Holt 1999), which Campbell (1997) reports were about as distant as English and Swedish. Only Tol survives.
Classification
Prior to an influential paper by Greenberg and Swadesh in 1953 Tol (a.k.a. Eastern Jicaque) was thought to be a language isolate, i.e., there existed no knowledge as to its possible genetic affinities. They argued that Tol should be added to the Hokan stock, a large language stock, phylum or family, which was proposed by R. B. Dixon and Alfred D. Kroeber in 1913. In 1977, David Oltrogge proposed to link Tol to the extinct Subtiaba language of Nicaragua, and also to Chontal of Oaxaca, also known as Tequistlateco. This indirectly amounted to a mere sub-classification, since all of the three languages in question were part of the proposed Hokan stock. A couple of years later, Campbell and Oltrogge published a reconstruction of Jicaquean phonemes, based on the available information on Western and Eastern Jicaque. In that same paper they expressed strong doubt in the Hokan affiliation of Tol and mild enthusiasm regarding the possible link to Chontal of Oaxaca, but stressed that much more information was needed to be able to say anything reasonable. More recently, Kaufman has expressed his continuing support of the Hokan affiliation of Tol.
Julian Granberry & Gary Vescelius (2004) propose that the extinct Ciguayo language of Hispaniola has its closest relatives in the Tolan languages.
Proto-language
Proto-Jicaque reconstructions by Campbell and Oltrogge (1980), along with daughter language data from Campbell (1999). Note minor differences in transcription.
| Proto-Jicaque reconstructions by Campbell and Oltrogge (1980) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| no.glossProto-JicaqueWestern JicaqueTol 2all*pʰɨ(t) 3always*han- 5arm, back, shoulder*pʰelpʰenpʰel 7arrow*ȼimea?harekhalek 8ashes*pʰɨpʰɨhpʰɨbɨhpʰɨpʰɨh 13to be*kʼos 16bed*kʰankankʰan 17belly*-kolkonkol 18big*pɨneh?pɨnépɨné 24black*te(kʰ)tete 27blood*kʼaskatʔas 28blue*ȼu(h)ču(h)tsu 30body*pʼɨ(y)pɨjpʼɨj 32bone*kʰelekerekʰele 34bow (of bow and arrow)*halek 37to burn*tV-pʷeto-bweto-pwe 38bush (forest)*hokʼ-la 40buzzard*mantɨ 45cloud*molmonmol 46coal(s)*ȼʰek 51cougar*pɨkʼa(-he) 59daughter*(ku)kus 62deer*pʼɨspɨtpʼɨs 63to die*pɨʔ? 65dog*ȼʰiyo(h)ʃijótsʰijó 66to drink*mɨʔ 67(to) dry*pʰa-pʰa-pʰa 69ear*pʰaȼʼpatpʰatsʼ 70earth, land*(a)ma(h)mama 71to eat*la? 72egg*pehey 75excrement*pɨ(y) 78far*kampakambakampa 79father*(pa)pa(y) 84fire*kʼawakaw-ʔaw-a 85firewood*wɨ(t) 86fish*kʰulkunkʰul 89flea*pel 91fly*noȼoȼnočotnotsots 93forehead*walawarawala 94to forget*-pɨʔ 95four*(y)ulupʰanaurubana(j)ulupʰana 97fruit*wolas 99to give*-tekʼate-gate-ʔa 101good*wɨ(k) 102grain (cf. maize)*huluphurukhulup 103grandmother, female*(mɨ)mɨy 104to grind*kʰol?to-gon-to-kʰol 106hair*ȼʼilčintsʼil 107hand*mas? 108he, that*huphukhup 109head*ha(y)pʰukabukajpʰuk 110to hear*pʰak 111heart*has-hoč(uruk)hos- 114horn*ȼʰemeʃemetsʰeme 115house*wawawa 117I*nap?naknap 119intestines*ȼʼul-čuntsʼul 123knee*tikʼ- 125to laugh*wiʔ 126leg*tektektek 128lip*lɨprɨklɨp 129liver*komkonkom 131long*kampakambakampa 132to look for*pal- 133louse*tɨtʼtɨttɨtʼ 135macaw*pʼɨsa(h)pɨčápʼɨsá 137male, grandfather*(ko)koy 138man*yom 140meat*pispitpis 143moon*mɨmɨy 144month*mɨy-pʰini(h) 148mouth*lala 149much*pɨlɨkpɨrɨkpɨlɨk 150my, mine*naȼaʔ 152navel*lulu 153nephew*kelew?kerékelé 155no*ma- 156nose*mikmikmik 157to nurse*ȼoʔčo?-tsoʔ 158oak*ȼʼololčorontsʼolol 159one*pʰani(h) 164parrot*kʰuyu(h)kujuhkʰujuh 168red*he(h)hehe 172round*mul-? 175salt*ȼolimčorintsolin 177sandal, shoe*ȼompit 178scorpion*ȼʰew?ʃe(w)tsʰew 179to see*nu(k) 186skinny*kʰele 187sky*alpa 188sleep*han- 190smoke*mus-mutmus 192to snore*-hol- 194to sow, plant*sin- 195to speak*wele 196spider*kolokkorokkolok 201stone*pe(h)pepe 202summer*ȼʰikinčikin-tsikin 203sun*loȼʼakločaklotsʼak 204tail*sokʼčoksokʼ 207there is/are not (Sp.: no hay)*kuwa 210thorn*ham? 212to tie*ȼupa-čubatsupa 215tongue*pelam 216tooth*wis 217tree*yo(h)jojo 220two*matʼɨmatamatʼa 221uncle*kokʰam? 224wasp*petʰelpetenpetʰel 225water*sɨ(tʰ)-čɨ-sɨ 226we*-kup-kuk-kup 228white*pʰe(kʰ)pʰepʰe 229wind*lɨpʰɨ(kʰ)lɨbɨ-lɨpʰɨ 230woman*kepkekkep 233word*wele 235worm, caterpillar*ȼʼihihčihtsʼih- 237yellow*lu(pʰ) 239you*hipikhip | ||||
| no. | gloss | Proto-Jicaque | Western Jicaque | Tol |
| 2 | all | *pʰɨ(t) | ||
| 3 | always | *han- | ||
| 5 | arm, back, shoulder | *pʰel | pʰen | pʰel |
| 7 | arrow | *ȼimea? | harek | halek |
| 8 | ashes | *pʰɨpʰɨh | pʰɨbɨh | pʰɨpʰɨh |
| 13 | to be | *kʼos | ||
| 16 | bed | *kʰan | kan | kʰan |
| 17 | belly | *-kol | kon | kol |
| 18 | big | *pɨneh? | pɨné | pɨné |
| 24 | black | *te(kʰ) | te | te |
| 27 | blood | *kʼas | kat | ʔas |
| 28 | blue | *ȼu(h) | ču(h) | tsu |
| 30 | body | *pʼɨ(y) | pɨj | pʼɨj |
| 32 | bone | *kʰele | kere | kʰele |
| 34 | bow (of bow and arrow) | *halek | ||
| 37 | to burn | *tV-pʷe | to-bwe | to-pwe |
| 38 | bush (forest) | *hokʼ-la | ||
| 40 | buzzard | *mantɨ | ||
| 45 | cloud | *mol | mon | mol |
| 46 | coal(s) | *ȼʰek | ||
| 51 | cougar | *pɨkʼa(-he) | ||
| 59 | daughter | *(ku)kus | ||
| 62 | deer | *pʼɨs | pɨt | pʼɨs |
| 63 | to die | *pɨʔ? | ||
| 65 | dog | *ȼʰiyo(h) | ʃijó | tsʰijó |
| 66 | to drink | *mɨʔ | ||
| 67 | (to) dry | *pʰa | -pʰa | -pʰa |
| 69 | ear | *pʰaȼʼ | pat | pʰatsʼ |
| 70 | earth, land | *(a)ma(h) | ma | ma |
| 71 | to eat | *la? | ||
| 72 | egg | *pehey | ||
| 75 | excrement | *pɨ(y) | ||
| 78 | far | *kampa | kamba | kampa |
| 79 | father | *(pa)pa(y) | ||
| 84 | fire | *kʼawa | kaw- | ʔaw-a |
| 85 | firewood | *wɨ(t) | ||
| 86 | fish | *kʰul | kun | kʰul |
| 89 | flea | *pel | ||
| 91 | fly | *noȼoȼ | nočot | notsots |
| 93 | forehead | *wala | wara | wala |
| 94 | to forget | *-pɨʔ | ||
| 95 | four | *(y)ulupʰana | urubana | (j)ulupʰana |
| 97 | fruit | *wolas | ||
| 99 | to give | *-tekʼa | te-ga | te-ʔa |
| 101 | good | *wɨ(k) | ||
| 102 | grain (cf. maize) | *hulup | huruk | hulup |
| 103 | grandmother, female | *(mɨ)mɨy | ||
| 104 | to grind | *kʰol? | to-gon- | to-kʰol |
| 106 | hair | *ȼʼil | čin | tsʼil |
| 107 | hand | *mas? | ||
| 108 | he, that | *hup | huk | hup |
| 109 | head | *ha(y)pʰuk | abuk | ajpʰuk |
| 110 | to hear | *pʰak | ||
| 111 | heart | *has- | hoč(uruk) | hos- |
| 114 | horn | *ȼʰeme | ʃeme | tsʰeme |
| 115 | house | *wa | wa | wa |
| 117 | I | *nap? | nak | nap |
| 119 | intestines | *ȼʼul | -čun | tsʼul |
| 123 | knee | *tikʼ- | ||
| 125 | to laugh | *wiʔ | ||
| 126 | leg | *tek | tek | tek |
| 128 | lip | *lɨp | rɨk | lɨp |
| 129 | liver | *kom | kon | kom |
| 131 | long | *kampa | kamba | kampa |
| 132 | to look for | *pal- | ||
| 133 | louse | *tɨtʼ | tɨt | tɨtʼ |
| 135 | macaw | *pʼɨsa(h) | pɨčá | pʼɨsá |
| 137 | male, grandfather | *(ko)koy | ||
| 138 | man | *yom | ||
| 140 | meat | *pis | pit | pis |
| 143 | moon | *mɨmɨy | ||
| 144 | month | *mɨy-pʰini(h) | ||
| 148 | mouth | *lala | ||
| 149 | much | *pɨlɨk | pɨrɨk | pɨlɨk |
| 150 | my, mine | *naȼaʔ | ||
| 152 | navel | *lulu | ||
| 153 | nephew | *kelew? | keré | kelé |
| 155 | no | *ma- | ||
| 156 | nose | *mik | mik | mik |
| 157 | to nurse | *ȼoʔ | čo?- | tsoʔ |
| 158 | oak | *ȼʼolol | čoron | tsʼolol |
| 159 | one | *pʰani(h) | ||
| 164 | parrot | *kʰuyu(h) | kujuh | kʰujuh |
| 168 | red | *he(h) | he | he |
| 172 | round | *mul-? | ||
| 175 | salt | *ȼolim | čorin | tsolin |
| 177 | sandal, shoe | *ȼompit | ||
| 178 | scorpion | *ȼʰew? | ʃe(w) | tsʰew |
| 179 | to see | *nu(k) | ||
| 186 | skinny | *kʰele | ||
| 187 | sky | *alpa | ||
| 188 | sleep | *han- | ||
| 190 | smoke | *mus | -mut | mus |
| 192 | to snore | *-hol- | ||
| 194 | to sow, plant | *sin- | ||
| 195 | to speak | *wele | ||
| 196 | spider | *kolok | korok | kolok |
| 201 | stone | *pe(h) | pe | pe |
| 202 | summer | *ȼʰikin | čikin- | tsikin |
| 203 | sun | *loȼʼak | ločak | lotsʼak |
| 204 | tail | *sokʼ | čok | sokʼ |
| 207 | there is/are not (Sp.: no hay) | *kuwa | ||
| 210 | thorn | *ham? | ||
| 212 | to tie | *ȼupa- | čuba | tsupa |
| 215 | tongue | *pelam | ||
| 216 | tooth | *wis | ||
| 217 | tree | *yo(h) | jo | jo |
| 220 | two | *matʼɨ | mata | matʼa |
| 221 | uncle | *kokʰam? | ||
| 224 | wasp | *petʰel | peten | petʰel |
| 225 | water | *sɨ(tʰ) | -čɨ | -sɨ |
| 226 | we | *-kup | -kuk | -kup |
| 228 | white | *pʰe(kʰ) | pʰe | pʰe |
| 229 | wind | *lɨpʰɨ(kʰ) | lɨbɨ- | lɨpʰɨ |
| 230 | woman | *kep | kek | kep |
| 233 | word | *wele | ||
| 235 | worm, caterpillar | *ȼʼihih | čih | tsʼih- |
| 237 | yellow | *lu(pʰ) | ||
| 239 | you | *hip | ik | hip |
- Campbell, Lyle. (1979). "Middle American languages." In L. Campbell & M. Mithun (Eds.), The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment (pp.902–1000). Austin: University of Texas Press.
- Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian Languages, The Historical Linguistics of Native America. Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford UP.
- Campbell, Lyle, and David Oltrogge (1980). "Proto-Tol (Jicaque)." International Journal of American Linguistics, 46:205-223.
- Granberry, Julian, and Gary Vescelius (2004). Languages of the Pre-Columbian Antilles. Birmingham: University of Alabama Press.
- Greenberg, Joseph H., and Morris Swadesh (1953). "Jicaque as a Hokan Language." International Journal of American Linguistics 19: 216–222.
- Holt, Dennis. (1999). Tol (Jicaque). Languages of the World/Materials 170. Munich: LincomEuropa.