Kariri languages
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The Karirí languages, generally considered dialects of a single language, are a group of languages formerly spoken by the Kiriri people of Brazil. It was spoken until the middle of the 20th century; the 4,000 ethnic Kiriri are now monolingual Portuguese speakers, though a few know common phrases and names of medicinal plants. A revival of the Dzubukuá variety has been ongoing since 1989.
History
After the Dutch were expelled from Northeast Brazil in the 17th century, Portuguese settlers rapidly colonized the region, forcing Kariri speakers to become widely dispersed due to forced migrations and resettlement. Hence, Kariri languages became scattered across Paraíba, Ceará, Pernambuco, Bahia, and other states.
Languages
The four known Kariri languages (or dialects) are:
There are a short grammatical description and a catechism in Kipeá, a catechism in Dzubukuá, and word lists for Kamurú and Sabujá. Modern grammatical descriptions are available for Kipeá and Dzubukuá. Ribeiro established through morphological analysis that Kariri is likely to be related to the Jê languages. This is now disputed.
Mason (1950) lists:
- Kariri Cariri Kipea Camurú Dzubucua Pedra Branca Sapuya
Loukotka (1968)
Below is a full list of Kiriri languages and dialects listed by Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.
- Kiriri / Quipea / Quiriri - originally spoken in the Serra dos Velhos, Paraíba state, later at the old missions of Missão Velha, Missão Nova, Milagres, Crato, and others, in the states of Paraíba, Pernambuco and Ceará. Now entirely extinct, and the survivors speak only Portuguese.
- Kariri / Dzubucua / Cariri - extinct language once spoken on the islands of the São Francisco River near Cabrobó, Pernambuco. Now extinct, and the last survivors spoke only Portuguese.
- Sapuyá / Sabuya - extinct language originally spoken in the Serra Chapada, later in Caranguejo, Bahia
- Kamurú - originally spoken on the Pardo River and in Pedra Branca; the last survivors on the Gongogi River spoke only Portuguese.
Unattested varieties
- Iñamum - once spoken on the Inhamum Island of the São Francisco River, Pernambuco. (Unattested)
- Quesque - once spoken on the Pajeú River, state of Pernambuco. (Unattested)
- Abacatiara - once spoken on an island in the São Francisco River, Pernambuco. (Unattested)
- Icozinho - once spoken around the confluence of the Salgado River and Jaguaribe River, Ceará. (Unattested)
- Icó - once spoken between the Salgado River, Piranhas River and Peixe River, Ceará. (Unattested)
- Calabaça - the Portuguese name of an extinct language of the Salgado River, Ceará. (Unattested)
- Cariú - once spoken between the Cariús River and Bastiões River, Ceará. (Unattested)
- Corema - formerly spoken on the Piancó River, state of Paraíba. (Unattested)
- Jucá - once spoken south of the sources of the Jaguaribe River and near Arneiroz, Ceará. (Unattested)
- Ichú / Ansus - once spoken on the sources of the Salgado River in the state of Ceará. (Unattested)
- Ariú / Peba - extinct language formerly spoken on the Piranhas River and Sabugi River in the state of Paraíba. (Unattested)
- Bultrin - extinct language of the Serra da Borborema of the state of Paraíba. (Unattested)
- Quixexeu - once spoken on the Jaguaribe River, Ceará. (Unattested)
- Quixelu - once spoken on the Jaguaribe River, Ceará. (Unattested)
- Aracapa - extinct language once spoken on Aracapa Island in the São Francisco River, Pernambuco. (Unattested)
The original language of the Tumbalalá[pt], now extinct, is effectively unattested and unclassified, but words for Tumbalalá ritual objects used in their traditional toré religion appear to be of Kariri origin, namely pujá, kwaqui, and cataioba.
Other languages called Kariri
The names Kariri and Kiriri were applied to many peoples over a wide area in the east of Brazil, in the lower and middle São Francisco River area and further north. Most of their now-extinct languages are too poorly known to classify, but what is recorded does not suggest that they were all members of the Kariri family. Examples are:
- Katembri (Kiriri, Kariri, Kariri de Mirandela [near Banzaê and Quijingue in Bahia]) Kaufman (1990) classified it as Katembri–Taruma. It appears to be a Kariri language with some substratum from an unidentified language, generally assumed to be that of the Katembri.
- Xocó (Xokó, Chocó [in Sergipe], Kariri-Xocó, Kariri-Shoko, Cariri-Chocó [in Alagoas], Xukuru-Kariri, Xucuru-Kariri, Xucuru-Cariri [in Alagoas]) Three populations. Not clear if this was one language or three. In the Porto Real do Colégio and Palmeira dos Índios areas of Alagoas.
Classification
Kariri has been included in the Macro-Jê family. However, the resemblances may be superficial, and the most recent classification of Macro-Jê excludes Kariri.
Language contact
Ramirez et al. (2015) notes that Kariri languages display some lexical similarities with Cariban languages. Similarities with Katembri (also known as Kariri of Mirandela) or possibly Kaimbé may be due to either a Kariri superstratum or substratum in Katembri.
Syntax
Unlike most Macro-Jê languages which are SOV, Karirí languages are verb-initial (VSO) and make use of prepositions.[verification needed][disputed – discuss]
Vocabulary
Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items for the Kariri languages.
gloss Quipea Dzubucua Sapuya Kamurú ear beñe beñé penix benyen tooth dza dza zá zah tongue nunu nunú nunü nunuh hand amísa musang musoé musang water dzu isú dzú dzu stone kro kro kro sun ukie uxe uché uchih moon kayaku kayakú gayakú gayakúh star bati bathü bathü batthüh tree bewó tsi tsui tobacco badze paewi poyú pot ruñu
Loanwords
Eastern Macro-Jê loanwords in Kariri languages:
gloss Kipeá Dzubukuá other languages beans ghinhé guenhie giñá (Kotoxó) hammock pité pitta pita (Coroado) Black person gorá engorá (Krenák) swamp, marsh pôhô pohok (Maxakalí) cow, cattle cradzó cradzo krazo ‘tapir’ (Masakará)
Tupinambá loanwords in Kariri languages:
gloss Kipeá Dzubukuá Tupinambá other Eastern Macro-Jê languages needle awí abi Maxakalí ãmix banana bacobá pacova Coroado bacóba White person caraí carai caraíba Iatê klai, Krenák krai box cramemú caramẽmuã domestic pig curé curê Krenák kurek pumpkin erumú jurumũ, jeremũ Purí šurumúm ‘potato’ bread miapé miapé beads myghý muihi mboýra oil nhendí nianddi nhandy bench pycá apycába chicken, hen sabucá dapuca (güyra)ssapucáia Black person tapanhú tapwinhiu tapyyiúna Coroado tabañiú, Makoni tapagnon, Malalí tapagnon Black person tapyýia Iatê tupia hoe tasí itassýra Maxakalí taxunna money tayú tayu itajúba Maxakalí tayũmak God tupã tupam tupã Maxakalí topa, Krenák kupan, Coroado tupan priest waré padzuare abaré Maxakalí ãmãnex, Macuni amattèih, Coroado uáre, Masakará ampari mirror waruá guaruguá sugarcane mill wirapararã ybyrapararánga
Portuguese loanwords in Kariri languages borrowed via Tupinambá and other intermediate sources:
gloss Kipeá Dzubukuá Possible intermediate sources Portuguese other Macro-Jê languages goat cabará cabara cabará (Tupinambá) cabra horse cabarú cavarú (Tupinambá) cavalo Coroado kawarú, Cotoxó cavaró cross crusá crudzá curussá (Tupinambá) cruz Iatê klusa devil nhewó niẽwo niñavoo (Kapoxó) diabo paper papera papel Iatê wapela, Coroado tapera
Notes
- Ribeiro, Eduardo Rivail (2002). . LIAMES: Línguas Indígenas Americanas (in Portuguese). 2 (1): 31–48. doi:. ISSN .
- Fabre, Alain. 2005. Diccionario etnolingüístico y guía bibliográfica de los pueblos indígenas sudamericanos: KARIRI
Further reading
- Rodrigues, A. D. (1942). Arquivos do Museu Paranaense, 2:179-212.