Proto-Trans–New Guinea language
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Proto-Trans–New Guinea is the reconstructed proto-language ancestral to the Trans–New Guinea languages. Reconstructions have been proposed by Malcolm Ross and Andrew Pawley.
Phonology
Proto-Trans–New Guinea is reconstructed with a typical simple Papuan inventory: five vowels /ieaou/; three phonations of stops at three places /ptk/, /ᵐbⁿdᵑɡ/, /mnŋ/; plus a palatal affricate /ᶮdʒ/, the fricative /s/, and the approximants /ljw/. Syllables are typically (C)V, with CVC possible at the ends of words. Many of the languages have restricted tone systems.
Consonants Bilabial Apical Palatal Velar Plosive p t k Prenasalised plosives ᵐb ⁿd ᶮdʒ ᵑg Nasals m n ɲ ŋ Fricatives s Laterals l Semivowels w j
The Proto-Trans–New Guinea vowels are reconstructed as having a cross-linguistically frequent five-vowel system:
Vowels Front Central Back Close i u Mid e o Open a
Pronouns
Ross reconstructs the following pronominal paradigm for Trans–New Guinea, with *a~*i ablaut for singular~non-singular:
I *na we *ni thou *ga you *gi s/he *(y)a, *ua they *i
There is a related but less commonly attested form for 'we', *nu, as well as a *ja for 'you', which Ross speculates may have been a polite form. In addition, there were dual suffixes *-li and *-t, and a plural suffix *-nV, (i.e. n plus a vowel) as well as collective number suffixes *-pi- (dual) and *-m- (plural) that functioned as inclusive we when used in the first person. (Reflexes of the collective suffixes, however, are limited geographically to the central and eastern highlands, and so might not be as old as proto-Trans–New Guinea.)
Morphology
Studies group Madang, Finisterre-Huon, and Kainantu-Goroka together as part of a larger Northeast New Guinea (NENG) group on the basis of morphological evidence, such as mutually reconstructable verbal suffixes that mark subject:
Proto-Northeast New Guinea subject-marking verbal suffixes
singular dual plural 1st person *-Vn *-u(l,t) *-un, *-i 2nd person *-an *-i(l,t) *-ai, *-i, *-a 3rd person *-a, *-i *-ai
Comparison of reconstructions of subject-marking verbal suffixes
proto-Northeast New Guinea proto-Madang proto-Finisterre-Huon proto-Kainantu-Goroka Proto-Trans–New Guinea (tentative) 1sg *-Vn *-in ? *-u *-Vn 2sg *-an *-an,*-i *-an *-an *-Vn 3sg *-a,*-i *-a,*-an *-a,*-i *-ai,*-i *-a,*-i 1du *-u(l,t) -*-u(l,t) *-u(l,t) *-ur *-u(l,t) 2/3du *-i(l,t) *-i(l,t) *-i(l,t) ? *-i(l,t) 1pl *-un,*-i *-un *-un *-un 2/3pl *-ai,*-i,*-a *-ai,*-i *-e,*-i *-a
Lexicon
Lexical words, such as *niman 'louse', may also be reconstructed:
Reflexes of*niman'louse', which attest to an intermediate*imanin the east:
Chimbu–Wahgi: Mid/Nuclear Wahgi numan
Engan: Enga & Kewa lema
Finisterre–Huon: Kâte imeŋ, Selepet imen
Gogodala mi
Kainantu–Goroka: Awa nu, Tairora nume, Fore numaa, Gende (tu)nima
Southern Kiwai nimo
Koiarian: Managalasi uma
Kolopom: Kimaghama nome, Riantana nome
Kwale nomone
Madang: Kalam yman, Watiwa (Rai Coast) im, Sirva (Adelbert) iima
Mek: Kosarek ami
Marori nemeŋk
Paniai Lakes: Ekari yame (metathesis?)
Timor–Alor–Pantar: Western Pantar (h)amiŋ, Oirata amin (metathesis?)
Wiru nomo Questionable branches:
Pauwasi: Yafi yemar
Central Sentani mi
The Proto-Trans–New Guinea negative is reconstructed as *ma-. Negatives in Trans–New Guinea languages usually have either an mV- or nV- form.
- *mV (often *ma): Angaatɨha (Angan); Apalɨ, Waskia, Kalam (Madang); Kâte, Kombe (Finisterre-Huon)
- *na ~ *naa: Awara (Finisterre-Huon); Enga, Ku Waru, Middle Wahgi (Chimbu-Wahgi); Oksapmin
Reconstructions
| body parts | |
|---|---|
| arm, forearm | *mbena |
| belly, internal organs | *mundun |
| blood | *ke(nj,s)a |
| bone | *kondaC |
| brain | *muk[V] |
| breast | *amu |
| buttocks | *simbi + modifier |
| cheek | *mVkVm |
| claw, hand | *sikal or *sakil |
| ear | *kand(i,e)k[V] |
| excrement 1 | [same as 'guts'] |
| excrement 2 | *ata |
| eye 1 (cf. egg 2) | *(ŋg,k)iti-maŋgV |
| eye 2 | *ŋg(a,u)mu |
| eye 3 | *nVpV |
| fingernail | *(mb,p)(i,u)t(iu)C |
| foot, lower leg | *k(a,o)nd(a,o)[C] |
| forehead, head | *mVtVna |
| guts, intestines, bowels | *sim(i,u), *simbi |
| hair 1 | *(nd,s)umu(n,t)[V] |
| hair 2, leaf | *iti |
| head 1 | *kV(mb,p)utu |
| head 2 | *mVtVna |
| heart 1 (cf. belly, egg 2) | *mundu-maŋgV |
| heart 2 | *simu |
| heart 3 | *kamu |
| knee | *(ŋg,k)atuk |
| leg 1 | *k(a,o)nd(a,o)[C] |
| leg 2, calf | *kitu |
| liver | *[ma]pVn |
| milk, sap | *muk |
| mouth, teeth | *maŋgat[a] |
| navel | *simu + modifier |
| neck 1 | *k(a,e)(nd,t)ak |
| neck 2, nape, side of | *kuma(n,ŋ)[V] |
| nose | *mundu |
| penis | *mo |
| saliva | *si(mb,p)at[V] |
| shoulder | *kinV |
| skin | *(ŋg,k)a(nd,t)apu |
| testicles | *walaka |
| tongue 1 | *mbilaŋ |
| tongue 2 | *me(l,n)e |
| tooth 1 | (see mouth) |
| tooth 2 | *titi |
| urine | *[si]si, *siti, *pisi |
| kin terms | |
| brother, older | *[mb]amba |
| father | *apa, *mbapa |
| grandparent | *apus[i] |
| husband, man | *ambi |
| mother, free form | *am(a,i,u) |
| mother, bound form | *na- |
| sibling, older | *nan(a,i) |
| sibling, older same sex | *[mb]amba |
| sister | *aya |
| age-gender and other social categories | |
| baby | *ŋaŋa |
| boy | *nV |
| man, husband | *ambi |
| orphan, widow & child | *mbeŋga-masi |
| woman, female | *panV |
| birds, bird parts | |
| bird 1 | *n[e]i |
| bird 2 | *yaka[i] |
| cassowary | *ku[y]a |
| egg 1 | *mun(a,e,i)ka |
| egg 2, fruit, seed | *maŋgV |
| tail | *a(mb,m)u |
| wing | *mbutu |
| insects | |
| butterfly | *apa[pa]ta |
| fly | *ŋgambu |
| louse | *niman, *iman |
| mosquito | *kasin |
| plants, plant parts | |
| bark | *ka(nd,t)ap[u] |
| casuarina | *kal(a,i)pV |
| fruit, seed (cf. egg 2) | *maŋgV |
| leaf 1, hair | *iti |
| leaf 2 | *sasak |
| root | *kindil |
| sap, milk | *muk |
| taro | *mV |
| tree, wood | *inda |
| inanimate world | |
| ashes 1 | *sumbu |
| ashes 2 | *kambu-sumbu |
| ashes 3 | *la(ŋg,k)a |
| cloud 1, sky | *samb[V] |
| cloud 2 | *ka(mb,p)utu |
| fire 1 | *k(a,o)nd(a,u)p |
| fire 2 | *inda |
| fire 3 | *kambu |
| flame | *mbalaŋ |
| ground 1 | *man[a] |
| ground 2 | *maka[n] |
| lightning, light | *(mb,m)elak |
| moon 1 | *takVn[V] |
| moon 2 | *kal(a,i)m |
| morning | *k(i,u)tuma + X |
| night | *k(i,u)tuma |
| sand | *sa(ŋg,k)asiŋ |
| sky 1, cloud | *samb[V] |
| thunder, sky 2 | *kumut, *tumuk |
| smoke 1 | *kambu(s,t)(a,u) |
| smoke 2 | *kambu-la(ŋg,k)a |
| stone 1 | *kamb(a,u)na |
| stone 2 | *[na]muna |
| sun 1 | *kamali |
| sun 2 | *ketane |
| water 1 | *ok[V] |
| water 2 | *nok |
| wind 1 | *kumbutu |
| wind 2, breeze | *pinVm |
| artefacts | |
| axe | *tu |
| fence | *wati |
| netbag 1 | *kun |
| netbag 2 | *at(i,u) |
| string, rope | *asi |
| intangible cultural concepts | |
| instructions, language, word, speech | *mana |
| mind, thought | *n(o,u)man |
| name 1 | *imbi |
| name 2, who | *wani |
| shadow, spirit | *k(aw,o)nan |
| song, type of | *saŋ |
| witchcraft | *kum |
| independent pronouns (for subject, object, possessor) | |
| 1 singular | *na |
| 2 singular | *ŋga |
| 3 singular | *ya |
| 3 singular | *wa |
| 1 plural | *ni, *nu |
| 1 plural | *ni |
| 2 plural | *ŋgi, *ki |
| 1 dual | *niLi, *nuLi |
| 2 dual | *ŋgiLi, *kiLi |
| 3 dual | *iLi |
| verbal suffixes marking person-number of subject | |
| 1 singular | *-Vn |
| 2 singular | *-an |
| 1 dual | *-uL |
| 2/3 dual | *-iL |
| 1 plural | *-un |
| 1 singular different subject | *-pa |
| verbs | |
| be (live, stay, sit) | *mVna- |
| bite | *s(i,u)- |
| blow | *pu + verb |
| break | *pa(ŋg,k)- |
| burn | *nd(a,e,i)- |
| burn, light a fire | *ki- |
| carry (on back, shoulder) | *kak(i,u)- |
| come | *me- |
| cook | *andu- |
| cut, chop | *tVk- |
| die | *kumV- |
| do, make | *ti- |
| dream | *kina(mb,p)- |
| eat, drink | *na- |
| fly, flutter | *putu(putu)- |
| give | *mV- |
| go 1 | *pu- |
| go 2 | *yata- |
| hit | *tu- |
| know, hear, see | *nVŋg- |
| laugh | *ŋgiti (+ verb) |
| live, be, sit | see 'be' |
| put | *(m,p)a(l,t)V- |
| say, speak | *nde- |
| see, know, perceive | *nVŋg- |
| shoot | *tVmV- |
| sleep 1, lie down | *kin(i,u)[m] |
| sleep 2 | *p(e,i)t(e,i)o- |
| speak, talk | *nde- |
| spit | *kasipa- |
| stand | *t(a,e,i)k[V]- |
| swell | *su + verb |
| take | *(nd,t)a- |
| tie | *ndiŋga-, *ndaŋgi |
| turn (oneself) | *mbuli[ki] + verb |
| urinate | *X + *si- (urine + verb) |
| vomit | *mVŋ[g]V ti- |
| adjectives | |
| blue | *muk[V] |
| cold | *kukam(o,u) |
| dry | *ŋgatata |
| full | *t(o,u)k(i,u) ti- |
| heavy | *kenda |
| long | *k(o,u)t(u,i)p |
| new | *kVtak |
| short | *tumba |
| straight | *tutu[tu]ku |
| conjunctions | |
| and | *ito |
| negatives | |
| not | *ma- (+ verb) |
| numerals | |
| two | *ta(l,t)(a,e) |
Lexical comparison
| family | language | head | hair | ear | eye | nose | tooth | tongue | leg | blood | bone | skin | breast |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Trans–New Guinea | Proto-Trans–New Guinea | *kobutu; *kV(mb,p)utu; *mUtUna; *mVtVna | *iti; *(nd,s)umu(n,t)[V]; *zumun | *ka(nd,t)(i,e)C; *kat(i,e)C; *tVmV(d) | *g(a,u)mu; *ŋg(a,u)mu; *(ŋg,k)iti [maŋgV]; *nVpV | *mundu; *mutu | *magata; *maŋgat[a]; *titi | *balaŋ; *mbilaŋ; *me(l,n)e; *me(n,l)e | *kani(n); *k(a,o)ond(a,o)C; *kitu | *ke(ñj,s)a; *kesa | *kondaC; *kwata(l,n) | *gatapu; *(ŋg,k)a(nd,t)apu | *amu |
| West Bomberai | Proto-Mbaham–Iha | *kaˈnda | *kʷⁱɛr | *wⁱɛk | *ˈtɔkar | *pak | *sɔn | ||||||
| Asmat–Kamoro | Proto-Asmat–Kamrau | *uɸu | *ɸini | *jiɸ[a/o]ne | *manaN | *miC | *siC | *komane | *mawu | *ese | *eake | *awo | |
| Ok–Oksapmin | Proto-Ok-Oksapmin | *kiin | *(mu)duum | *fV(lV)ŋ | *xeim | ||||||||
| Greater Awyu | Proto-Awyu-Dumut | *kɑibɑn; *xaiban | *möxö; *muk; *ron | *turun | *kerop | *togut | *fɔgat; *fɔgɛt; *pogɑt | *gom | *kɑt; *xa(t) | *ɑm; *om | |||
| Kayagaric | Proto-Gondu River | *toxom | *upm | *itipaːm | *sakam | *jup | *o[x/ɣ]om | *maetap | *apit | *jes | *nomop | *pip | *etum |
| Kolopom | Proto-Kolopom | *tipV; *mVrV[w] | *muen[a] | ? *mVrVk; *[ndz][o/u]an | *VnV | *ŋgon | *t[e]r[a]k | *mepreŋg | *iendz | *mam | |||
| Anim | Proto-Fly River | *kindV[C] | *kam | *sas | *mbai[a]ŋg; *ɸia[u] | ||||||||
| Anim | Proto-Inland Gulf | *gia | *tu; *jeja | *kuɸino | *dasi | *ta; *bese | *koda; *sasa | *idini | *ɸia | *nikopi; *ko[j]ipo | *jono | ||
| Anim | Proto-Lower Fly River | *duɾumə; *duɾum | *towap | *baɾid | *miw | *suwə; *kam; *su | *jimə; *jim | *nauɾə | *naɾak(ə); *baig | *bub | |||
| Anim | Proto-Marind | *pa | *kembet, *kambet | *kind | *aŋgi₂p | *maŋgat | *inum | *tegu | *do | *haiau, *hiau | *ugu | *bub | |
| Marori | Morori | merao | pu | ayix | terox | tegu | ŋgorom | ŋgwar | par | ||||
| Gogodala-Suki | Gogodala | ganabi | tita | igibi | tao | mina | poso | mɛlɛpila | gosa | kaka | omo | ||
| Kiwaian | Proto-Kiwai | *kepuɾu | *mus[ua] | *gaɾe | *idomaɾi | *wodi | *ibo(-nVɾV) | *uototoɾo[p/b]e | *sakiɾo | *kaɾima; *sa[w]i | *soɾo | *tama | *amo |
| Paniai Lakes | Ekari (Paniai Lake dialect) | migo | iyo | peka | juma | egó | etá | emo | mitoo | kadó | ama | ||
| Dani | Dani, Lower Grand Valley (Tangma dialect) | mʋkkʋl-oak | nesi | nesakko | neil-ekken | namisaŋ | naik | namili | mep | noak | nakap | neilak | |
| Somahai | Momuna | toko | toko-ate | otu | ija | i jo-ku | janɨ | toko | ke | ||||
| Mek | Proto-Mek | *p[ɔ]t[ɔ]ŋ | *aᵓ | *atiŋ | *jo̝ | *se̝l[ija]mu | *jan | *e̝ne̝ŋ | *jɔk | *mɔᵘm | |||
| Awin-Pa | Proto-Kamula-Elevala | *ke̝ba | *m[ɔ/o̝]d[ɔ/o̝] | *kinɔ | *kine̝ | *bate̝ | *taⁱ | *tama | *ke̝dɔ | ||||
| East Strickland | Gobasi | ulʌkib | o dɔsɔ | dulo | hiɔ̃ | mina | mɔi | ili | hɔma | sõho | kib | kɔlɔf | tɔnu |
| Duna-Bogaya | Duna | kuni | hini | kɔhane; konane | le | kuma | ne; nee | ogone; ɔgɔne | tia | kuyila | kuni | pulu | abu; adu; amu |
| Duna-Bogaya | Bogaya | yeľʌ; yela | heepi; yeľʌ eľika | hona; hɔnʌn | kina; ki:nʌn | kuuma; pfouľu | yagai; yʌkʌi | iki; ɩkin | yehei; yehʌi | sokoya; yesʌ | hakale; hʌv̧ʌľe | hugwa; hukuʌn | alu; ʌľu |
| Bosavi | Kaluli | mise; misẽ | misẽ fɔ̃; mise foon | kenẽ; malo | si | migi | beso; bis | eʌn; sano | gidaafoo; gip | hɔbɔ; hooboo | ki | dɔgɔf; toogoof} | bo; bu |
| Kutubu | Proto-Lake Kutubu | *uni | *iti | *hʲĩ | *sabe | *mete | *atu | *kotage | *kigi | *ga[o/u] | *hʲokõ | ||
| Enga-Kewa-Huli | Enga (Sari dialect) | aiyomba | iri | kale | lenge | lya | neŋge | moko | taiyoko | kuli | yoŋge | andu | |
| Wiru | Wiru | tobou | pine; píne | kabidi | lene | timini | kime | keke; keké | kawa | kamate | tono | kepene | adu |
| Chimbu-Wahgi | Kuman | bit-na; bɩtiɩno | iŋguno; yungo | kina-na; kunano | gumutino; ongomit-na | guma-ne; gumano | siŋguno | dirambino | kati; kat-na | borɔmai; bořumai; maiam | yambiřo; yombura | gaŋgino | amu-na; amuno |
| Madang | Proto-Madang | *gat(a,i)(m) | *imunu | *kaun(i) | *amu | *mutu(gu) | *make | *mele | *kani(n) | *ka(d,r)a; *kara | *kwaten | *ga(n,r)a | *amu(na) |
| Finisterre | Mungkip | kʰige | sɨsa; sɪsa | maget; magitnɛ | dae; da·ge | miminɛ; mimiŋge | ma | mabɛm; mabim | kada | we·q | kwadi; kwadzi | girim | nom |
| Huon | Selepet | kun; kun- | somot; somot- | âdâp-; ɔndɔp | sen; sen- | hâme-; hɔme | sât-; sot | nibilam-; nimbilam | hep- | haǥit; hahit- | hâk-; hɔk | nam; nam- | |
| Kainantu-Goroka | Proto-Eastern Kainantu-Goroka | *-'no-N; *pia- | *ä-Q-ra-N | *-hi-Q | *-mäpi-V | *nade-V | *nä-N | ||||||
| Kainantu-Goroka | Proto-Eastern Kainantu | *piᵄtɐ | *jɐᵘsi | *ɑːtoː | *wu | *ipi | *wɐⁱ | *m₂ɑːpiɾi | *ipu | *wi[ʔt]ipɐ | *muʔjɑːni | *nɑːNmɐ | |
| Kainantu-Goroka | Proto-Northern Kainantu | *noːN | *jɐᵘ | *ɑːʔ | *u | *siʔ | *wɐj | *[m/n][ɐⁱ]piɾ | *tɐɾ | *nɑːɾeː | *(ɐ-)jɐNpɐ | *nɑːN | |
| Angan | Simbari | minta | mindata | kaantɨka | sɨmta | sɨmputa | maanka | kwaavlɨlɨ | sɨwla | mɨnjaaka | yankinta | kɨlaaka | aamɨnta |
| Turama-Kikori | Proto-Rumu-Omati | *mab | *b[au]t | *go̝ | *isĩ | *ju | *magu | *tãᵋ | *tab | *sõ̝ | |||
| Goilalan | Fuyug | hul ha; ondobe | are; hul haluma | gadolo | hul li; im | hul hunga; unge | hul usi | hul asese | soga | tana | hude | hul hoda; ode | hul duda |
| Goilalan | Tauade | kɔrɔtɔ | awutu | kepapaí | tavai | ki:tʰ | nɔtɔvai | aivi | lɔ'vai | il'iví | keniví | kɔtipai | data |
| Greater Binanderean | Proto-Binandere | *ciro; *giti | *tu | *dibe; *diti | *di | *VwVwV | *ju; *or{a,o}rә | *bobo; *wetu | *tamә | *ami | |||
| Koiarian | Proto-Koiarian | *fómo | *ni | *uri | *taɣo | *vata | *amu | ||||||
| Kwalean | Proto-Kwalean (Ross) | *iku(va) | *(u)bu(i)vi(ma) | *ʒaʒore | *vono(ne); *wano(ne) | *ruu | *esi(ne) | *ahiri | *n(a)u(ne) | ||||
| Kwalean | Proto-Humene-Uare (Usher) | *igu | *ubuma | *jajɔɾɛ | *ɣɔnɔnɛ | *majanɛ | *ɔda | *ɾɔo̝ | *e̝tinɛ | *ahe̝ɾe̝ | *nuunɛ | ||
| Manubaran | Proto-Manubaran (Ross) | *ada | *weʔia | *ane-ma | *ne(u) | *uru-ma | *gade | *afie | *[n,y]u-ka | *nena | *roʔ(o,a) | ||
| Manubaran | Proto-Mount Brown (Usher) | *ada | *u[w]e[t/k]a | *anema | *ne | *uɾuma | *gade | *api[j]e | *daweʔa | *nena | *ɾoʔo | *sisu | |
| Yareban | Proto-Musa River | *bo-tai | *idi | *ome | *nai-tai | *iboʔo | *ni[ʔ]o | *meana | *buɾi | *iwa | *tai | *ope | *ama |
| Mailuan | Mailu (Ilai dialect) | ilolo | liʔimu | ʔope | ini | durumu | maʔa | goba | ʔau | lala | kisa | ʔopi | ama |
| Dagan | Daga | iwa | igumewa | darinewa | yamewa | ginewa | nodonewa | mɛriwa | dɛnip | kaemewa | ɛpiwa | amewa |
| family | language | louse | dog | pig | bird | egg | tree | sun | moon | water | fire | stone | path |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Trans-New Guinea | Proto-Trans-New Guinea | *niman | *n(e,i); *n(e)i; *n[e]i; *yak; *yaka[i]; *yanem | *maŋgV; *munaka; *mun(a,u)ka | *ida; *inda ~ *iñja | *kamali; *kamuli; *ketana | *kal(a,i)m; *kamali; *takVn; *takVn[V] | *nok; *(n)ok; *ok(u); *ok[V] | *inda; *k(a,e)dap; *k(a,e)(n,d)ap; *kambu; *k(a,o)nd(a,u)p | *kamb(a,u)na; *(na)muna; *[na]muna | |||
| West Bomberai | Proto-Mbaham–Iha | *mɛⁱn | *jaˈmbar | *[ku]ˈndur | *wun | *wiˈra | *kaˈminV | *kaˈpas | *kiˈra | *war | |||
| Asmat-Kamoro | Proto-Asmat-Kamrau | *amo | *juwuɾi | *oɸo | *[a]sa | *ose | *jawu | *buɾa | *m[oi/ui] | *usa | *jeta | ||
| Ok-Oksapmin | Proto-Ok-Oksapmin | *mVjaan | *kVŋ; *saamVVn | *aleem; *ilnem | *ataan | *kajoop | |||||||
| Greater Awyu | Proto-Awyu-Dumut | *gut | *angay; *ɑgɑi; *set | *wi | *yet | *wɑidin | *yin | *seyɑt | *wɑkot | *ox | *yin | *irop | |
| Kayagaric | Proto-Gondu River | *num | *epe | *wakum | *suopam | *map-jaxam | *wom | *taːm | *xa[x/ɣ]atam | *o[x/ɣ]om | *atu | *maitn | *kamein |
| Kolopom | Proto-Kolopom | *nemeŋg | *n[ia] | *k[o/u][a] | *uak | *nd[ua]t | *kumbanV | *ndzu | *mete | ||||
| Anim | Proto-Fly River | *n[u]m[u]ŋg | *mbasik | *kanV | *nde | *tae | |||||||
| Anim | Proto-Inland Gulf | *uani | *gaso | *maɸa | *ewesa | *ɸutu; *usu | *de | *nowumu; *siwio | *bubei | *ogo | *maɸi; *ta[j]e | *jigei | |
| Anim | Proto-Lower Fly River | *oɾ[eae]n | *s[eae]; *diɾean | *m[i/e]nawə | *dawod | *sVɣaɾə | *naukə | *manom | *manom | *mau[g/k]ə | *j[i]au | *didigə | *ewean |
| Anim | Proto-Marind | *nahun; *mba[m/mb] | *ŋgat | *basik | *ujub | *magaw | *de | *katane | *mandou | *adeka | *tekaw | *ketaɾ; *seŋga | *isas |
| Marori | Morori | nemeŋk | koro | bosik | ujif | vi | kwi | kum | deke | sir | mere | ||
| Gogodala-Suki | Gogodala | ami | soke | uai | kadɛpa | wi | ila | nabidi | |||||
| Kiwaian | Proto-Kiwai | *nimo | *[k]umu | *wowogo | *kikopu | *nuk₂a; *kota | *saɾik₂i; *si[w]io | *sagomi; *owe | *kobo | *keɾa | *(nok₂oɾa-)kopi | *gabo | |
| Paniai Lakes | Ekari (Paniai Lake dialect) | uka | dodi | ekina | bedo | nipo | pija | meuka; tani | agoo | uwo | bodija | mogo | itá |
| Dani | Dani, Lower Grand Valley (Tangma dialect) | napɩ | jekke | wam | sʋe | sʋe-kken | e | mo | tuki | i | ettu | helep | kwe |
| Somahai | Momuna | amega | kwoka | uwo | magisaga | kwo | ɨkɨ | iŋga | kukwa | kɨ | |||
| Mek | Proto-Mek | *ami | *gam | *be̝sam | *mak, *mag | *do̝[k] | *gal | *k[ɛ]t[e̝]ŋ | *wal | *m[ɛ/a]g | *o̝ᵘg | *gɛⁱl; *gidig | *bi[t/s]ig |
| Awin-Pa | Proto-Kamula-Elevala | *awV | *ti | *m₂aⁱnæ | *te̝ja | *m[ɔ/o̝]k[ɔ/o̝] | *je̝ | *gani | *ike̝ | ||||
| East Strickland | Gobasi | om | sɔf | bɔi | sigɔ | wigɔ hɔlɔ | hɔmɔ̃n | õs | ogɔ | hõ | dɔbu | yo | |
| Duna-Bogaya | Duna | tete | yawi | isa | heka | hapa | lowa; lɔwa | hewa | eke | yu | lɔwa kiliana; lowa puru | kana; kuna | |
| Duna-Bogaya | Bogaya | fando; fiľʌ | ɔv̧ɔpi; yau | ʌpʌn | aka; pitʌkʌ | oondi; pitʌkʌ ɔ̃udi | dowa; tɔuʌ | owa; ɔwa | kaiyuu; kʌiu | paiyuku; pʌiuku | dowada; tɔun | haana; hʌnʌ | |
| Bosavi | Kaluli | fe; fẽ | gasa; kasʌ | kabɔ | ɔ̃bẽ; oloone; oobaa | ɔ̃bẽ uš; us | i | of; ɔf | ili | hɔ̃n; hoon | de; di | u | |
| Kutubu | Proto-Lake Kutubu | *g[e/ẽ/a]s[a/ã] | *mena | *hʲaka | *kapa | *ita | *he̝ge̝ | *hẽ | *ita | *kana | *ig[i]a | ||
| Enga-Kewa-Huli | Enga (Sari dialect) | tilya | yana | mena | yaka | yaka tuku | ita | niki; nira | kana | indaki | ira | kan | kait |
| Wiru | Wiru | nomo; nomò | tue | kaì | ini; inì | mu̧ | yomo; yomò | lou; loú | tokene | ue; uè | toe | kue; kué | |
| Chimbu-Wahgi | Kuman | numan | aʝg; agi; akɬ̥ | bogla; bugɬa | kua | mugɬo; muɬo | endi | ande; andesuŋgua | ba | nigl; nikɬ̥ | baugl; doŋga | kombuglo; kombugɬo | konbo; konumbo |
| Madang | Proto-Madang | *[n]iman | *kVbara | *munaka | *tari | *kamali | *kalam; *takun | *yag(V) | *k(a,e)dap | *namanu | |||
| Finisterre | Mungkip | mi; mīŋ | sap | kare | jāŋ | qiliq | bɛm | maim; male | jaʁip | ime; imɛ | kuduk; kugup | qawade | tɛlɛ; tɛrɛpmēŋ |
| Huon | Selepet | imen | soso | nâi; nɔi | nak | dewutâ; dewutɔ | emesenŋe | to | kɔlɔp | kât; kɔt | giop | ||
| Kainantu-Goroka | Proto-Eastern Kainantu-Goroka | *nu-N | *iya-N | *poe-V | *yë-V | *no-N | *ida-V | *ä-N | |||||
| Kainantu-Goroka | Proto-Eastern Kainantu | *numɐ | *w₂ɐⁱni | *p₂uᵄɾɐ | *inɑːmɐ; *uwini | *uɾu | *jɐtɐɾi | *j₂uᵄni | *[u]toːnɐ | *noːni | *iʔjɐ | *oːni | *ɑːni |
| Kainantu-Goroka | Proto-Northern Kainantu | *nuN | *ijɐN | *poːɾ | *nuN | *uɾ | *jɑːj | *ɑːʔ | *wi[ɾ]oːN | *noːN | *itɐ | *oː[ɾ/j] | *ɑːj |
| Angan | Simbari | ila | njɨlɨka | ntaqatɨ | pantapta | ika | kwɨnja; nilya | lampaaka | aalya; wanya | ntɨka | sɨla | ||
| Turama-Kikori | Proto-Rumu-Omati | *gutɔm | *gas | *gɔ[u]n | *gaᵋ | *d[ɔ]um | *i | *ɛsɔa | *wẽ̝ | *i | *dɛⁱ | ||
| Goilalan | Fuyug | hi | ho; oi | ovo | Nemba; nembe | hulombo | i'i | evuli | hama | ʒu | oki | zo | enamba; inambe |
| Goilalan | Tauade | dautʰ | kɔveřa | pɔřu | kide | mutuwu | eata | vatava | ɔne | ipi | e'na·m | evi'ti | bɔřiƀařa |
| Greater Binanderean | Proto-Binandere | *sinә | *pu | *munju | *i | *iji; *waeko | *inua | *awo | *g{o,e}mb{a,i}(ro) | *begata; *esa; *ndai | |||
| Koiarian | Proto-Koiarian | *ʔumu | *ugu[fa] | *uni | *idí | *vené | *muni | ||||||
| Kwalean | Proto-Kwalean (Ross) | *(n)omo(ne) | *ɣuni | *aba | *teboare | *ma(va) | *mada | *bato | *vou; *wara | *ire | *hadi | ||
| Kwalean | Proto-Humene-Uare (Usher) | *nɔmɔnɛ | *ɣo̝ni | *aba | *ne̝ni; *t[e̝]b[o̝]ɾ[e̝] | *maɣa | *maˈda | *batɔ | *wɔu | *iɾɛ | *hadi | *e̝bi | |
| Manubaran | Proto-Manubaran (Ross) | *gue | *auna | *Dona | *erena | *une-ma | *yabo | *maida(ka) | *e(y)oʔa; *mohe- (?) | *koru | *ita | ||
| Manubaran | Proto-Mount Brown (Usher) | *gu[w]e | *auna | *dona | *eɾena | *unema | *jabo | *me[i]daʔa | *ejoʔa | *koɾu | *ita | *waʔiga | *ida |
| Yareban | Proto-Musa River | *uʔa | *kua | *boɾo | *gasiɾa; *ada | *baka; *uɾimi | *ana | *eweaka | *maɾabe; *sakaɾa | *adua | *inaʔa | *oma; *gebiɾo | *daʔaba |
| Mailuan | Mailu (Ilai dialect) | tuma | dari | talae | manu | muruʔu | ana | nina | dovele | ʔaʔama | eu | gomana | laea |
| Dagan | Daga | kuisin | eao | tuan | nɛnip | bagua | oma | oam | siragam | kaum | om |
| family | language | man | woman | name | eat | one | two |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Trans-New Guinea | Proto-Trans-New Guinea | *abV; *ambi | *panV; *pan(V) | *ibi; *imbi; *wani | *na; *na- | *ta(l,t)(a,e) | |
| West Bomberai | Proto-Mbaham–Iha | *nami-sar | *t[ɔ/u]mb[ɔ/u]r | *nⁱɛ | *nawa | *ɔkʷɔ[nɔ] | |
| Asmat-Kamoro | Proto-Asmat-Kamrau | *ɟawoɟa | *uwase | *n[a]- | *ɟawa[kV] | *kaboma | |
| Ok-Oksapmin | Proto-Ok-Oksapmin | *win | |||||
| Greater Awyu | Proto-Awyu-Dumut | *ran; *rɑn | *füp; *pip | *ɑde; *en; *ɛn- | *rumo; *rumon | ||
| Kayagaric | Proto-Gondu River | *jo[k] | *enop | *na[k] | *xapti | *pa[x/ɣ]amo[x/k] | *tousiki |
| Kolopom | Proto-Kolopom | *ndz[ia]p | *jowa[k] | *n[e/a][k/ŋg] | *[j]enapa; *sVp | ||
| Anim | Proto-Fly River | *anem | *anum | *ija (?) | *meas[i] | ||
| Anim | Proto-Inland Gulf | *aneme | *anumu | *jiga | *jaigio | *measi | |
| Anim | Proto-Lower Fly River | *anem(ə) | *anum(ə) | *gag | *tamu | *ɣoɾ[e]a[u][k] | *mis |
| Anim | Proto-Marind | *anem | *anum | *igij | *ɣawi[ɣ] | *ijako[d]; *ijakod | *inah |
| Marori | Morori | yexri | nex | kef | sekodu | yenadu | |
| Gogodala-Suki | Gogodala | dala; dalagi | ato; susɛgi | gagi | na | ||
| Kiwaian | Proto-Kiwai | *dubu | *oɾobo; *upi | *paini, *paina | *oɾuso (sg.), *iɾiso (pl.) | *nak[o/u] | *netoa |
| Paniai Lakes | Ekari (Paniai Lake dialect) | jame | eka | nai | ena; kate | wijá | |
| Dani | Dani, Lower Grand Valley (Tangma dialect) | ap | he; hʋmɩ | ettake | oppakke-at | p:ie | |
| Somahai | Momuna | mogo-mearu | nowa- | ||||
| Mek | Proto-Mek | *ge̝l | *si | *de̝-(b) | *[na]tɔn | *b[e̝/ɛ]te̝ne̝ | |
| Awin-Pa | Proto-Kamula-Elevala | *k[ɔ/o̝]b[a/ɔ] | *pi | *de̝- | *tV[n/d]o̝ | ||
| East Strickland | Gobasi | os | uliʌ | hũni | nɔwalaga | hele | bihinɔ̃n |
| Duna-Bogaya | Duna | anoa; anɔa | ima | yaka | nai-; neyana | du | yapa |
| Duna-Bogaya | Bogaya | ami; ʌmĩ | ĩmiʌ; imya | ʌmĩn; yaga | nã; nosii | mɔsʌ kɔmʌ; moso | efʌn; yeefa |
| Bosavi | Kaluli | kalu | ga; kesali; kesari | wi | maya | ãgel; angel | a̧dep; ãdip |
| Kutubu | Proto-Lake Kutubu | *ne- | *hʲaga | ||||
| Enga-Kewa-Huli | Enga (Sari dialect) | akali | eŋda | keŋge | neŋge | mendai | lapoma |
| Wiru | Wiru | ali | atoa; atòa | ibini; ibíni | nakò; one ne nako | odene | takuta; ta kutà |
| Chimbu-Wahgi | Kuman | yagl; yakɬ̥ | ambu | kaŋgin; kangi-ne | neuŋgua | suařa | suo |
| Madang | Proto-Madang | *na-gali(k) | *ibi; *wañim | *(n,ñ)a | *kati(ŋ,g)a | *arigita | |
| Finisterre | Mungkip | mɛ | tam | buŋām; wow | nʌna | kubugaŋ | lifɛt |
| Huon | Selepet | lok | apet; ibi | kut; kut- | ne; ni- | konok | yâhâp |
| Kainantu-Goroka | Proto-Eastern Kainantu-Goroka | *kwe-(t)-V | *-wi-Q | *boda | |||
| Kainantu-Goroka | Proto-Eastern Kainantu | *wɐⁱ-iNti | *ɐnɑːjeː | *utu | *nɐ- | *moːʔjɑː | *tɑːɾɐ |
| Kainantu-Goroka | Proto-Northern Kainantu | *wɑːⁱNsɐ | *ɐnɑːsi | *wiʔ | *mɐnɑː | *tɑːN | |
| Angan | Simbari | kwala | aampala | yavata | an̲aantapyɨ | pɨrɨ'mɨna | pɨvɨraalna |
| Turama-Kikori | Proto-Rumu-Omati | *e̝ne̝ne̝n | *t[aⁱ/aᵋ] | ||||
| Goilalan | Fuyug | A'a; an | Amu; amuri | ifa | huni nene | fida | ʒuvalo |
| Goilalan | Tauade | baře | iva | ape'te | ɔmei nai | kɔne | kupal'iai |
| Greater Binanderean | Proto-Binandere | *embә | *bam{u,o}nә | *jajo; *jawә | *ind-; *mind- | *daba | |
| Koiarian | Proto-Koiarian | *maɣina | *ifí | *i- | *(i,o)gau | ||
| Kwalean | Proto-Kwalean (Ross) | *vaʒe | *no'ɣone | *ni | *anE- | *teba | *aheu |
| Kwalean | Proto-Humene-Uare (Usher) | *wajɛ | *nɔgɔnɛ | *ni | *an- | *te̝bɔ | *ahɛu |
| Manubaran | Proto-Manubaran (Ross) | *amie | *roka | *iri- | *yokohi | *(ye)(ka)ma[nu] | |
| Manubaran | Proto-Mount Brown (Usher) | *ami[j]e | *ɾema | *ɾoka | *iɾi- | *jokohi | *[ɾ/j]ema |
| Yareban | Proto-Musa River | *e[ʔe]me | *aweta | *ibi | *it- | *demu | |
| Mailuan | Mailu (Ilai dialect) | egi | avesa | omu | isiisi | ʔomu | ʔava |
| Dagan | Daga | apan | oaen | yaoa | naiwan | daiton | dɛrɛ |
For other lexical comparison tables of Papuan languages, see also:
- West Papuan languages#Lexical comparison
- West Bomberai languages#Lexical comparison
- West Papuan Highlands languages#Lexical comparison[broken anchor]
- Northwest Papuan languages#Lexical comparison[broken anchor]
- Trans-Fly–Bulaka River languages#Lexical comparison[broken anchor]
- Papuan Gulf languages#Lexical comparison
- Torricelli languages#Lexical comparison
- Sepik–Ramu languages#Lexical comparison
- East Papuan languages#Lexical comparison
See also
- List of Proto-Trans-New Guinea reconstructions (Wiktionary)
Synchronic reflexes
- Madang languages#Evolution Kalam language#Evolution Apali language#Evolution
- Finisterre–Huon languages#Evolution Kâte language#Evolution Selepet language#Evolution
- Kainantu–Goroka languages#Evolution
- Engan languages#Evolution
- Chimbu–Wahgi languages#Evolution Wahgi language#Evolution
- East Strickland languages#Evolution
- Greater Awyu languages#Evolution Mandobo language#Evolution
- Asmat–Kamrau languages#Evolution Asmat language#Evolution
- Ok languages#Evolution Telefol language#Evolution
- Marind–Yaqai languages#Evolution
- Paniai Lakes languages#Evolution
- Dani languages#Evolution
- Mek languages#Evolution
- Wiru language#Evolution
- Duna–Pogaya languages#Evolution
- Kutubuan languages#Evolution
- Kiwaian languages#Evolution Kiwai language#Evolution
- Tirio languages#Evolution
- Awin–Pa–Kamula languages#Evolution
- Kolopom languages#Evolution
- Morori language#Evolution
- Gogodala–Suki languages#Evolution
- Inland Gulf languages#Evolution
- Greater Binanderean languages#Evolution Binandere language#Evolution
- Mailuan languages#Evolution
- Dagan languages#Evolution
- Goilalan languages#Evolution
- Koiarian languages#Evolution
- Kwalean languages#Evolution
- Yareban languages#Evolution
- Manubaran languages#Evolution
- Timor–Alor–Pantar languages#Evolution
Bibliography
- Pawley, Andrew; Hammarström, Harald (2017). "The Trans New Guinea family". . De Gruyter. pp. 21–196. doi:. hdl:. ISBN 978-3-11-029525-2.
- Pawley, Andrew (1998). "The Trans New Guinea Phylum hypothesis: A reassessment". In Jelle Miedema; Cecilia Odé; Rien A.C. Dam (eds.). Perspectives on the Bird's Head of Irian Jaya, Indonesia. Amsterdam: Rodopi. pp. 655–90. ISBN 978-90-420-0644-7. OCLC .
- Pawley, Andrew (2005). "The chequered career of the Trans New Guinea hypothesis: recent research and its implications". In Andrew Pawley; Robert Attenborough; Robin Hide; Jack Golson (eds.). Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 67–107. ISBN 0-85883-562-2. OCLC .
Ross, Malcolm (2005). "Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages". In Andrew Pawley; Robert Attenborough; Robin Hide; Jack Golson (eds.). Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 15–66. doi:. ISBN 0858835622. OCLC .
- Wurm, Stephen A., ed. (1975). . Canberra: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. OCLC . Archived from on 2010-06-20.
Further reading
- Ross, Malcolm. 2014. . TransNewGuinea.org.
External links
- (by Simon Greenhill)