Foreign relations of Canada

The foreign relations of Canada are Canada's relations with other governments and nations. Canada is recognized as a middle power for its role in global affairs with a tendency to pursue multilateral and international solutions. Globalization has significantly influenced Canadian foreign policies, with the country known for its promotion of peace and security through mediation, and for providing aid to developing countries.

The "golden age of Canadian diplomacy" refers to a period in Canadian history, typically considered to be the mid-twentieth century, when Canada experienced a high level of success in its foreign relations and diplomatic efforts. Canada's leading role in the creation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and its development of modern peacekeeping during this period played a major role in the country's positive global image. Canada has long been reluctant to participate in military interventions that are not sanctioned by the United Nations. In the 21st century, Canadian direct participation in UN peacekeeping efforts has greatly declined. The large decrease was a result of Canada directing its participation to UN-sanctioned military operations through NATO, rather than directly through the UN. Canada has faced controversy over its involvement in some foreign countries, notably the 1993 Somalia affair.

Canada and the United States have a long, complex, and intertwined relationship; they are close allies, co-operating regularly on military campaigns and humanitarian efforts. Canada also maintains historic and traditional ties to the United Kingdom and to France, along with both countries' former colonies through its membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie. Canada is noted for having a positive relationship with the Netherlands, owing, in part, to its contribution to the Dutch liberation during World War II. Canada has diplomatic and consular offices in over 270 locations in approximately 180 foreign countries.

Canada promotes its domestically shared values through participating in multiple international organizations. Canada was a founding member of the United Nations in 1945 and formed the North American Aerospace Defense Command together with the United States in 1958. Canada has membership in the World Trade Organization, the Five Eyes, the G7 and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Canada acceded to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in 1976. The country joined the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1990, and seeks to expand its ties to Pacific Rim economies through membership in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC). As of 2023, Canada is a signatory to 15 free trade agreements with 51 different countries.

History

The foreign policies of Canada and its predecessor colonies were under British control until the 20th century. This included wars with the United States in 1775-1783 and 1812–1815. Economic ties with the U.S. were always close. Political tensions arose in the 19th century from anti-British sentiment in the U.S. in the 1860s. Boundary issues caused diplomatic disputes resolved in the 1840s over the Maine boundary and in the early 20th century over the Alaska boundary. There is ongoing discussion regarding the Arctic. Canada-US relations have been friendly in the 20th and 21st centuries.

Administration

In 1982, responsibility for trade was added with the creation of the Department of External Affairs and International Trade. In 1995, the name was changed to Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade.

Canada has often carried out its foreign policy through coalitions and international organizations, and through the work of numerous federal institutions (e.g.: the Royal Canadian Mounted Police International Peace Operations Branch or deployments of personnel by the Correctional Service of Canada). Under the aegis of Canadian foreign policy, various departments and agencies conduct their own international relations and outreach activities. For example, the Canadian Forces and the Department of National Defence conduct defence diplomacy in support of national interests, including through the deployment of Canadian Defence Attachés, participation in bilateral and multilateral military forums (e.g., the System of Cooperation Among the American Air Forces), ship and aircraft visits, military training and cooperation, and other such outreach and relationship-building efforts.

There are two major elements of Canadian foreign relations, Canada-US relations and multilateralism.

Greg Donaghy, of Canada's Department of Foreign Affairs, argues:

Since taking power in 2006, Prime Minister Harper's government has clearly abandoned the liberal internationalism that had so often characterized Ottawa's approach to world affairs, replacing it with a new emphasis on realist notions of national interest, enhanced capabilities, and Western democratic values.[relevant?]

Canada's international relations are the responsibility of the Department of Global Affairs, which is run by the Minister of Foreign Affairs. Traditionally the Prime Minister has played a prominent role in foreign affairs decisions. Foreign aid, formerly delivered through the Canadian International Development Agency, has been administered by DFATD since March 2013.

Foreign aid

The strategy of the Canadian government's foreign aid policy reflects an emphasis to meet the Millennium Development Goals, while also providing assistance in response to foreign humanitarian crises. Canada promotes its domestically shared values such as health, education, food security, climate action, gender equality, economic stability, human rights, and democracy through multilateral organizations, including World Bank Group, World Food Programme, UNICEF, and the Global Fund, as well as Canadian organizations like Nutrition International, Grand Challenges Canada, and Save the Children.

In the 2023-2024 fiscal year, Canada spent $12 billion on foreign aid. Canada is the 6th-largest overall contributor of official development assistance and the fifteenth largest when measured as a proportion of its gross national income. Canada provides substantial development assistance, primarily through Official Development Assistance with the goals of reducing global poverty and sustainable development. In 2024, Canada's ODA reached approximately CAD$9.6 billion (US$7.4 billion), representing 0.34% of its GNI, making it a significant donor among OECD countries.

A 2024 survey by Abacus Data indicated that Canadians generally support Canada's global engagement, particularly in providing international assistance. A separate poll by CanWaCH found that 81% of Canadians support Canada providing Official Development Assistance funding. Furthermore, 77% of Canadians believe it's important for Canada to help other countries in need.

Federalism and foreign relations

The provinces have a high level of freedom to operate internationally, dating to 1886 and Quebec's first representative to France, Hector Fabre. Alberta has had representatives abroad, starting with Alberta House in London (37 Hill Street), since 1948, and British Columbia around 25 years before that. By 1984, Quebec had offices in ten countries including eight in the United States and three in other Canadian provinces while Ontario had thirteen delegations in seven countries.

Arms Control

Canadian Government guidance for export controls on weapons systems is published by Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada. Automatic Firearms Country Control List, comprises a list of approved export nations which include as of 2014; (Albania, Australia, Belgium, Botswana, Bulgaria, Colombia, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, United Kingdom, and the United States).

Multilateralism

Canada is and has been a strong supporter of multilateralism. The country is one of the world's leading peacekeepers, sending soldiers under the U.N. authority around the world. Canadian former Minister of Foreign Affairs and subsequent Prime Minister, Lester B. Pearson, is credited for his contributions to modern international peacekeeping, for which he won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1957. Canada is committed to disarmament, and is especially noted for its leadership in the 1997 Convention in Ottawa on the prohibition of the use, stockpiling, production and transfer of anti-personnel mines.

In the last century Canada has made efforts to reach out to the rest of the world and promoting itself as a "middle power" able to work with large and small nations alike. This was demonstrated during the Suez Crisis when Lester B. Pearson mollified the tension by proposing peacekeeping efforts and the inception of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force. In that spirit, Canada developed and has tried to maintain a leading role in UN peacekeeping efforts.

Canada has long been reluctant to participate in military operations that are not sanctioned by the United Nations, such as the Vietnam War, the 2003 Iraq War and 2026 Iran war, but does join in sanctioned operations such as the first Gulf War, Afghanistan and Libya. It participated with its NATO and OAS allies in the Kosovo Conflict and in Haiti respectively.

Despite Canada's track record as a liberal democracy that has embraced the values of the UN's Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Canada has not been involved in any major plan for Reform of the United Nations Security Council; although the Canadian government does support UN reform, in order to strengthen UN efficiency and effectiveness.

Canada’s relations within the Americas

Canada joined the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1990 and has been an active member, hosting the OAS General Assembly in Windsor, Ontario, in June 2000.

Canada–Caribbean relations

Many Caribbean Community countries turn to Canada as a valued partner. Canadians, particularly Canadian banks and utility companies play an important economic role in the development of former British West Indies colonies. Efforts to improve trade have included the idea of concluding a free trade agreement to replace the 1986 bilateral CARIBCAN agreement. At various times, several Caribbean countries have also considered joining Canadian Confederation as new provinces or territories, although no Caribbean nation has implemented such a proposal. Note that many Caribbean countries are also involved in the Commonwealth of Nations, below.

Canada–Commonwealth of Nations

Canada maintains close links to the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms, with which Canada has strong historic ties and shares a monarch. It also remains a member of the Commonwealth.

Canada–Europe and Canada–European Union relations

Canada is an active participant in discussions stemming from the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE).

Two overseas territories of EU members, Greenland (Denmark) and Saint Pierre and Miquelon (France) lie adjacent to Canadian territorial waters.

International organizations

Canada is a member of the following organizations:

• Asian Development Bank (ADB) (nonregional member)
• African Development Bank (AfDB) (nonregional member)
• Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)
• Arctic Council
• ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF)
• Association of Caribbean States (ACS) (observer and partner)
• Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) (dialogue partner)
• Australia Group
• Bank for International Settlements (BIS)
• Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) (nonregional member)
• Caribbean Postal Union (CPU)
• Commonwealth of Nations
• Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC)
• European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD)
• Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
• Financial Action Task Force (FATF)
• Group of Seven (G7) –
• Group of Eight (G8)
• Group of Ten (G-10)
• Group of Twenty (G-20)
• Inter-American Development Bank (IADB)
• International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
• International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) (also known as the World Bank)
• International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
• International Chamber of Commerce (ICC)
• International Criminal Court (ICCt)
• International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (ICRM)
• International Development Association (IDA)
• International Energy Agency (IEA)
• International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)
• International Finance Corporation (IFC)
• International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRCS)
• International Hydrographic Organization (IHO)
• International Labour Organization (ILO)
• International Monetary Fund (IMF)
• International Maritime Organization (IMO)
• International Mobile Satellite Organization (IMSO)
• Interpol (organization) (Interpol)
• International Olympic Committee (IOC)
• International Organization for Migration (IOM)
• Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU)
• International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
• International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (ITSO)
• International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
• International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC)
• Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA)
• MINUSTAH (United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti)
• MONUSCO (United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo)
• North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
• North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
• Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA)
• Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG)
• Organization of American States (OAS)
• Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
• Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, International Organisation of La Francophonie (OIF)
• Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)
• Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE)
• Paris Club
• ParlAmericas
• Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA)
• Pacific Islands Forum (PIF) (partner)
• Postal Union of the Americas, Spain and Portugal
• Southeast European Cooperative Initiative (SECI) (observer)
• United Nations (UN)
• United Nations–African Union Mission in Darfur (UNAMID)
• United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)
• United Nations Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF)
• United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
• United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP)
• United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
• United Nations Mission in the Sudan (UNMIS)
• United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA)
• United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO)
• World Tourism Organization (UNWTO)
• Universal Postal Union (UPU)
• World Customs Organization (WCO)
• World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU)
• World Health Organization (WHO)
• World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
• World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
• World Trade Organization (WTO)
• Zangger Committee

Relations with international groups

Organizations with headquarters in Canada

• International Air Transport Association
• International Civil Aviation Organization
• Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization
• North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission
• United Nations Association in Canada

Major treaties signed in Canada

• Ottawa Treaty or Mine Ban Treaty (1997)
• Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987)
• Great Peace of Montreal (1701)

Territorial and boundary disputes

Canada and the United States have negotiated the boundary between the countries over many years, with the last significant agreement having taken place in 1984 when the International Court of Justice ruled on the maritime boundary in the Gulf of Maine. Likewise, Canada and France had previously contested the maritime boundary surrounding the islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, but accepted a 1992 International Court of Arbitration ruling.

Remaining disputes include managed maritime boundary disputes with the US (Dixon Entrance, Beaufort Sea, Strait of Juan de Fuca, Machias Seal Island).

Arctic disputes

A long-simmering dispute between Canada and the U.S. involves the issue of Canadian sovereignty over the Northwest Passage (the sea passages through the Arctic Archipelago). Canada's assertion that the Northwest Passage represents internal (territorial) waters has been challenged by other countries, especially the U.S., which argue that these waters constitute an international strait (international waters). Canadians were incensed when Americans drove the reinforced oil tanker Manhattan through the Northwest Passage in 1969, followed by the icebreaker Polar Sea in 1985, both without asking for Canadian permission. In 1970, the Canadian government enacted the Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act, which asserts Canadian regulatory control over pollution within a 100-nautical-mile (190km) zone. In response, the Americans in 1970 stated, "We cannot accept the assertion of a Canadian claim that the Arctic waters are internal waters of Canada.... Such acceptance would jeopardize the freedom of navigation essential for United States naval activities worldwide." A compromise was reached in 1988, by an agreement on "Arctic Cooperation," which pledges that voyages of American icebreakers "will be undertaken with the consent of the Government of Canada." However the agreement did not alter either country's basic legal position. Essentially, the Americans agreed to ask for the consent of the Government of Canada without conceding that they were obliged to. In January 2006, David Wilkins, the American ambassador to Canada, said his government opposes Stephen Harper's proposed plan to deploy military icebreakers in the Arctic to detect interlopers and assert Canadian sovereignty over those waters.

Along with other nations in the Arctic Council, Canada, Sweden, Iceland, Norway, Finland, Denmark and Russia, the maritime boundaries in the far north will be decided after countries have completed their submissions, due in 2012. Russia has made an extensive claim based on the Russian position that everything that is an extension of the Lomonosov Ridge should be assigned to Russia. Their submission had been rejected when first submitted by the United Nations in 2001.

In June 2019, the U.S. State Department spokesperson Morgan Ortagus said the US "view Canada’s claim that the waters of the Northwest Passage are internal waters of Canada as inconsistent with international law."

In December 2024, Canada outlined plans to address growing global interest in the Arctic, driven by climate change and geopolitical tensions, including Russia's actions in Ukraine. Recognizing climate change as the central threat, Canada committed to strengthening regional alliances, particularly with the U.S., while enhancing military defenses and asserting sovereignty over the Northwest Passage. It also aimed to resolve territorial disputes with the U.S. and Denmark, revive the Arctic ambassador role, and expand diplomatic ties in Alaska and Greenland. Indigenous leaders, though supportive, stressed the urgent need for better infrastructure in Arctic communities to bolster sovereignty and resilience.

Diplomatic relations

List of countries which Canada maintains diplomatic relations with:

Bilateral relations

Africa

Americas

Asia

Europe

Oceania

Other bilateral and plurilateral relations

One important difference between Canadian and American foreign policy has been in relations with communist governments. Canada established diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China (13 October 1970) long before the Americans did (1 January 1979). It also has maintained trade and diplomatic relations with communist Cuba, despite pressures from the United States.

See also

• List of diplomatic missions in Canada
• List of diplomatic missions of Canada
• List of state and official visits by Canada

Further reading

- Cooper, Andrew F. Canadian Foreign Policy: Old Habits and New Directions (Scarborough, ON: Prentice Hall Canada, 1997).

• Murray, Robert W. and Paul Gecelovsky, eds. The Palgrave Handbook of Canada in International Affairs (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2021)
• Bernstein, Alan (June 2013). . Science & Diplomacy. 2 (2).
• Bothwell, Robert. Canada and the United States (1992)
• Bothwell, Robert. The big chill: Canada and the Cold War (1998)
• Bothwell, Robert. Alliance and illusion: Canada and the world, 1945-1984 (2007)
• Bothwell, Robert and Jean Daudelin eds. Canada Among Nations: 100 Years of Canadian Foreign Policy (2009)
• Boucher, Jean-Christophe. "Yearning for a progressive research program in Canadian foreign policy." International Journal 69.2 (2014): 213–228.
• Bouka, Yolande, et al. "Is Canada's Foreign Policy Really Feminist? Analysis and Recommendations." Policy 13 (2021).
• Bow, Brian, and Andrea Lane, eds. Canadian Foreign Policy: Reflections on a Field in Transition (2020)
• Bow, Brian J.; Patrick Lennox (2008). . University of Toronto Press. ISBN978-0-8020-9634-0.
• Bugailiskis, Alex, and Andrés Rozental, eds. Canada Among Nations, 2011-2012: Canada and Mexico's Unfinished Agenda (2012)
• Carnaghan, Matthew, Allison Goody, "" (Library of Parliament: Political and Social Affairs Division, 26 January 2006)
• Chapnick, Adam, and Christopher J. Kukucha, eds. The Harper Era in Canadian Foreign Policy: Parliament, Politics, and Canada’s Global Posture (UBC Press, 2016).
• Collins, Jeffrey F. "Defence Procurement and Canadian Foreign Policy." in The Palgrave Handbook of Canada in International Affairs (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2021) pp.275–295.
• Congressional Research Service. Canada-U.S. Relations (Congressional Research Service, 2021) , by an agency of the U.S. government; not copyright; Updated 10 February 2021.
• Currie, Philip J., Canada and Ireland: A Political and Diplomatic History [Vancouver: UBC Press, 2020]
• Eayrs, James. In Defence of Canada. (5 vols. University of Toronto Press, 1964–1983) the standard history
• Fox, Annette Baker. Canada in World Affairs (Michigan State University Press, 1996)
• Froese, Marc D (2010), , University of Toronto Press, ISBN978-1-4426-0138-3
• Glazov, Jamie. Canadian Policy Toward Khrushchev's Soviet Union (2003).
• Granatstein, J. L., ed. Canadian foreign policy: historical readings (1986), excerpts from primary sources and scholars
• Holloway, Steven Kendall (2006). . Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN1-55111-816-5.
• Hampson, Fen Osler, and James A. Baker. Master of Persuasion: Brian Mulroney's Global Legacy (2018)
• Hawes, Michael K., and Christopher John Kirkey, eds. Canadian Foreign Policy in a Unipolar World (Oxford UP, 2017).
• Hillmer, Norman and Philippe Lagassé. Justin Trudeau and Canadian Foreign Policy: Canada Among Nations 2017 (2018)
• Holmes John W. The Shaping of Peace: Canada and the Search for World Order. (2 vols. University of Toronto Press, 1979, 1982)
• Irwin, Rosalind (2001). . UBC Press. ISBN978-0-7748-0863-7.
• James, Patrick, Nelson Michaud, and Marc O'Reilly, eds. Handbook of Canadian foreign policy (Lexington Books, 2006), essays by experts; 610pp
• James, Patrick. Canada and Conflict (Oxford University Press, 2012)
• Kirk, John M. and Peter McKenna; Canada-Cuba Relations: The Other Good Neighbor Policy UP of Florida (1997).
• Kirton, John and Don Munton, eds. Cases and Readings in Canadian Foreign Policy Since World War II (1992) 24 episodes discussed by experts
• Kukucha, Christopher J. "Neither adapting nor innovating: the limited transformation of Canadian foreign trade policy since 1984." Canadian Foreign Policy Journal (2018): 1–15.
• McCormick, James M. "Pivoting toward Asia: Comparing the Canadian and American Policy Shifts." American Review of Canadian Studies 46.4 (2016): 474–495.
• McCullough, Colin, and Robert Teigrob, eds. Canada and the United Nations: Legacies, Limits, Prospects (2017).
• Melnyk, George. Canada and the New American Empire: War and Anti-War University of Calgary Press, 2004, highly critical
• Michaud, Nelson. "Balancing Interests and Constraints: The Role of Provinces in the Shaping of Canadian Foreign Policy." in Political Turmoil in a Tumultuous World (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2021) pp.77–104.
• Miller, Ronnie. Following the Americans to the Persian Gulf: Canada, Australia, and the Development of the New World Order (Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1994)
• Molot, Maureen Appel. "Where Do We, Should We, Or Can We Sit? A Review of the Canadian Foreign Policy Literature", International Journal of Canadian Studies (Spring-Fall 1990) 1#2 pp 77–96.
• Nossal, Kim Richard et al. International Policy and Politics in Canada (2010), university textbook;
• Paris, Roland. "Are Canadians still liberal internationalists? Foreign policy and public opinion in the Harper era." International Journal 69.3 (2014): 274–307.
• Rochlin, James. Discovering the Americas: The Evolution of Canadian Foreign Policy towards Latin America (University of British Columbia Press, 1994)
• Sarty, Keigh. "The Fragile Authoritarians: China, Russia and Canadian Foreign Policy." International Journal 75:4 (December 2020): 614–628. DOI: .
• Stacey, C. P. Canada and the Age of Conflict: Volume 1: 1867–1921 (1979), a standard scholarly history
• Stacey, C. P. Canada and the Age of Conflict, 1921–1948. Vol. 2. (University of Toronto Press, 1981), a standard scholarly history;
• Stairs Denis, and Gilbert R. Winham, eds. The Politics of Canada's Economic Relationship with the United States (University of Toronto Press, 1985)
• Stevenson, Brian J. R. Canada, Latin America, and the New Internationalism: A Foreign Policy Analysis, 1968–1990 (2000)
• Thompson, John Herd; Randall, Stephen J (2008). . University of Georgia Press. ISBN978-0-8203-2403-6.
• Tiessen, Rebecca, and Heather A. Smith. "Canada’s ‘Feminist’ Foreign Policy Under the Harper Conservatives (2006–2015) and Trudeau Liberals (2015–2019) in Global Perspective." in The Palgrave Handbook of Canada in International Affairs (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2021) pp. 117-139.
• Wildeman, Jeremy. "Assessing Canada’s foreign policy approach to the Palestinians and Israeli-Palestinian peacebuilding, 1979–2019." Canadian Foreign Policy Journal 27.1 (2021): 62–80.
• Wildeman, Jeremy. "The Middle East in Canadian foreign policy and national identity formation." International Journal 76.3 (2021): 359–383.
• Wilson, Robert R. and David R. Deener; Canada-United States Treaty Relations (Duke University Press, 1963)

Primary Sources

• Arthur E. Blanchette (1994). . McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP. ISBN978-0-88629-243-0.
• Arthur E. Blanchette (2000). . Dundurn Press Ltd. ISBN978-0-919614-89-5.
• Riddell, Walter A. ed. Documents on Canadian Foreign Policy, 1917–1939 Oxford University Press, 1962 806 pages of documents

External links