Foreign relations of Finland

The foreign relations of Finland are the responsibility of the president of Finland, who leads foreign policy in cooperation with the government. Implicitly the government is responsible for internal policy and decision making in the European Union. Within the government, preparative discussions are conducted in the government committee of foreign and security policy (ulko- ja turvallisuuspoliittinen ministerivaliokunta), which includes the Prime Minister and at least the Minister of Foreign Affairs and the Minister of Defence, and at most four other ministers as necessary. The committee meets with the President as necessary. Laws concerning foreign relations are discussed in the parliamentary committee of foreign relations (ulkoasiainvaliokunta, utrikesutskottet). The Ministry of Foreign Affairs implements the foreign policy.

History

Early independence

In March 1917, Tsar Nicholas II of Russia abdicated the throne, which led to the collapse of the Russian Empire and left the Grand Duchy of Finland without a grand duke. Following the Bolshevik Revolution in November, Finland declared independence in December 1917. Soviet Russia was the first to recognize Finland on 4 January 1918, followed shortly by Sweden, France, and Germany.

In late January 1918, Finnish socialists launched a civil war with the support of Russian Bolsheviks. The anti-communist Whites, in turn, were supported by the German Empire. German assistance initially took the form of arms shipments and the deployment of Finnish Jägers trained in Germany. During the Finnish Civil War, Russia and Germany concluded the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, under which most of the Russian troops withdrew from Finland, leaving the Finnish Reds without support. Already in February, Finland's ambassador to Berlin, Edvard Hjelt, had formally requested German military intervention. In April, the German Baltic Sea Division landed at Hanko and took Helsinki from the Red Guards.

To secure German assistance, Finland and Germany had signed a peace treaty accompanied by a trade agreement that granted significant benefits for German industry. A secret supplementary protocol authorized German forces to establish bases in Finland and to operate through Finnish territory to the Arctic Ocean. After the White victory, a plan to establish a Finnish monarchy was set in motion, and Prince Frederick Charles of Hesse, brother-in-law of German Emperor Wilhelm II, was chosen as king-elect. Finland's pro-German policy and the election of a German king led to France to cut diplomatic relations with Finland, and prompted the United States and Great Britain to withhold recognition. U.S. Secretary of State Robert Lansing considered Finland a German-occupied country.

However, Germany's defeat in the World War I and the abdication of Wilhelm II also put an end to Finland's monarchy project and forced a reorientation of its foreign policy. German forces withdrew from Finland following the Armistice of 11 November 1918. General Baron Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, who had opposed the pro-German orientation, assumed the position of Regent of Finland. Mannerheim advocated the entente cordiale, supporting alignment with Franco–British relations. A republican constitution was adopted in Finland in 1919, and the Allied powers agreed to recognize Finland following the Paris Peace Conference.

Between the world wars

Relations with Soviet Russia from 1918 to 1939 were icy; voluntary expeditions to Russia called heimosodat ended only in 1922, four years after the conclusion of the Finnish Civil War. However, attempts to establish military alliances were unsuccessful.

World War II

By 1940, Finland and Sweden considered forming a political union, but Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union obstructed these plans. The Soviet Union had not relinquished its strategic objective of bringing Finland under its control. Finland's only remaining option was partnership with Germany. Germany, for its part, was interested in cooperation with Finland due to the presence of nickel deposits in Lapland, a raw material of vital importance for the production of defence equipment.

Later, during the Continuation War, Finland declared "co-belligerency" with Nazi Germany, and allowed Northern Finland to be used as a German attack base. For 872 days, the German army, aided indirectly by Finnish forces, besieged Leningrad, the Soviet Union's second-largest city. The peace settlement in 1944 with the Soviet Union led to the Lapland War in 1945, where Finland fought Germans in northern Finland.

During the Cold War

Finland did not join the Soviet Union's economic sphere (Comecon) but remained a free-market economy and conducted bilateral trade with the Soviet Union.

The participating states signed a treaty that guaranteed the free movement of people and information. This provision became a catalyst for demands for human rights within the Eastern Bloc. The CSCE conference thus played a role in undermining the Iron Curtain. Hosting the CSCE was, moreover, an acknowledgement of Finland's neutrality.

The President of the United States Ronald Reagan conducted a three-day state visit to Finland in 1988, hosted by President Mauno Koivisto. This visit symbolised the diplomatic relations between the two nations during the late Cold War period.

In 1990, the Helsinki Summit took place in Finland between U.S. President George H.W. Bush and Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev. The agenda of the summit prominently featured the issue of Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, which had precipitated international tensions.

Dissolution of the Soviet Union

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Finland unilaterally abrogated the last restrictions imposed on it by the Paris peace treaties of 1947 and the Finno-Soviet Agreement of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance. The government filed an application for membership in the European Union (EU) three months after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

Finland officially established its relations with NATO in 1992 when it participated as an observer in the North Atlantic Cooperation Council (NACC) foreign ministers’ meeting. This marked the beginning of Finland's engagement with NATO cooperation mechanisms following the end of the Cold War, motivated primarily by the need to monitor security developments in neighboring Russia and the Baltic states. Negotiations to join NATO's Partnership for Peace (PfP) were initiated in 1993, and Finland formally joined the PfP program in 1994. Initially, Finland's cooperation with NATO was restricted to non-combat areas such as rescue operations, peacekeeping training, and environmental protection.

In November 1995, Finland's Parliament was presented with a new peacekeeping law that facilitated broader participation in international peace operations. This legal framework enabled Finland's full engagement in the Bosnia IFOR peacekeeping mission in 1996 as a full and active peace partner.

Concurrently, efforts to align the Finnish Defence Forces' compatibility with NATO military standards were formalized through agreements signed in 1995. Further integration steps included the establishment of a special Finnish mission to NATO headquarters in Brussels in 1997, enhancing Finland's involvement in NATO decision-making processes while maintaining its policy of military non-alignment.

The Northern Dimension was conceived to manage the interdependencies between the EU and Russia, focusing on sectors such as environmental issues, nuclear safety, and the socio-economic development of border regions, including Kaliningrad. Finland's geographic and political position made it a key driver of this policy, leveraging its EU membership since 1995 to facilitate a cooperative framework with Russia rather than antagonism.

During the 1990s, Finnish exports to Russia recovered gradually after the collapse of the Soviet Union and the severe trade disruptions that followed. The economic situation in Russia came to stabilize during the 2000s, resulting in increased bilateral trade. By 2008, Russia had regained its status as Finland's largest export market, fuelled not only by industrial goods but also by the growing presence of Russian consumers who contributed to Finland's economic vitality.

In 2005, the number of foreign spies in Finland returned to Cold War levels. Espionage activity was concentrated in the Helsinki metropolitan area, where the nation's political leadership, largest corporations, and principal research institutions are located. The capital also hosts foreign embassies, through which, according to experts, the majority of espionage is conducted. According to information published by Helsingin Sanomat, approximately 50 trained spies representing the intelligence services of various countries were then operating in Finland. Most of them were based within the area of Ring Road III, posing as diplomats, journalists, researchers, businesspeople, grant holders, or students. Of these, an estimated 30 focused on civilian intelligence, while 20 concentrated on gathering military-related information.

Change in constitution

In 2000, a major reform was made to the Constitution of Finland, which repealed the previously valid four separate constitutional laws and created a unified, modernised Constitution. This reform particularly signified a significant shift in the leadership of foreign policy.

According to the Constitution of 2000, foreign policy is led by the President of the Republic in cooperation with the Council of State (the government). This means that the President's power in foreign affairs is no longer exclusive but emphasizes collaboration with the government. Additionally, due to EU membership, the leadership of foreign policy was divided: the Council of State was given decision-making authority in preparing EU affairs and national measures, while the President retained responsibility for traditional foreign policy outside the EU. In practice, this transferred much power from the President to the Prime Minister and the government, while also increasing the role of Parliament.

With this change, the President's power in domestic politics was significantly reduced, and the Prime Minister became the key decision-maker in forming the government and leading the EU aspect of foreign policy. Except in times of crisis, the Constitution of 2000 emphasized cooperation and the President's role is focused on foreign and security policy, but with more limited supervision and authority than before.

The Constitution of 2000 strengthened parliamentarism and transformed the President's position into a dual leadership in foreign policy: the President and the Council of State lead foreign policy together, with the Council of State and Prime Minister having a strong role in EU matters. This pushed Finland toward a more modern, parliamentary system of leadership in foreign policy. The arrangement has been criticised for not providing a simple answer of who's in charge if there is a major dispute.

Russian invasion of Ukraine

Following Russia's invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, Finland applied for NATO membership in May of that year, ending decades of military non-alignment. Finland joined NATO in April 2023. The decision was driven by an increased perception of threat from Russia, which undermined the credibility of bilateral security assurances. Concurrently, Finland intensified its defence cooperation with Ukraine by supplying defence materiel packages and signing cooperation agreements to deepen military collaboration. Finland has emerged as one of Ukraine's largest supporters by GDP ratio.

Multilateral relations

Since 1917, Finland has joined numerous multilateral organizations. Key ones include:

• League of Nations (1920)
• Bank for International Settlements (1930)
• International Monetary Fund (IMF) (1948)
• International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) (1948)
• General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) (1950)
• United Nations (UN) (1955)
• Nordic Council (1955)
• International Finance Corporation (1956)
• International Development Association (1960)
• European Free Trade Association (EFTA) (1961, until 1994)
• Asian Development Bank (1966)
• Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (1969)
• Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) (1973)
• Inter-American Development Bank (1977)
• African Development Bank (1982)
• Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (1988)
• Council of Europe (1989)
• European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) (1991)
• World Trade Organization (WTO) (1995)
• European Union (EU) (1995)
• Schengen Area (2001)
• INTELSAT (1999)
• NATO Partnership for Peace (1994) and full NATO membership (2023)

NATO

Finland's relationship with NATO began to strengthen immediately after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s, when Finland joined the North Atlantic Cooperation Council (NACC) as an observer in 1992, established for former Warsaw Pact members. Finland started to move closer to NATO by joining the Partnership for Peace (PfP) program in 1994, developing cooperation in defense matters while maintaining military non-alignment. From the 1990s onwards, Finland built increasingly closer ties with NATO, participating in international crisis management operations and signing a host nation support agreement with NATO in 2014, which defined the principles of assistance during crises and exercises.

Finland has participated in NATO's Partnership for Peace cooperation since 1994. Additionally, Finland became a member of the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC) in 1997. In 2014, Finland was invited as an advanced partner to join NATO's Enhanced Opportunities Partner (EOP) cooperation. Alongside its involvement in the Enhanced Opportunities cooperation, Finland also promoted trilateral cooperation between NATO, Finland, and Sweden, known as the "30+2" cooperation framework.

As the security environment changed, especially following Russia's invasion of Ukraine in early 2022, Finland's security policy situation became decisive. Finland decided to apply for NATO membership in May 2022. The Finnish Parliament strongly approved the membership, with opponents in the minority. Finland's NATO membership came into force on 4 April 2023, making Finland a full member and part of NATO's collective defense guarantees under Article 5.

This membership marked the end of Finland's long-standing military non-alignment and strengthened Finland's security in a changed European security landscape. Finland's membership also enhances stability and security in the Baltic Sea region and Northern Europe, with Finland actively participating in NATO's collective defense and decision-making.

Diplomatic relations

List

List of countries which Finland maintains diplomatic relations with:

Multilateral

Africa

Americas

Asia

Europe

Oceania

International organization participation

• AfDB
• AsDB
• Australia Group
• BIS
• CBSS
• CCC
• CE
• CERN
• EAPC
• EBRD
• ECE
• EIB
• ESA
• EU
• FAO
• G-9
• IADB
• IAEA
• IBRD
• ICAO
• ICC
• ICC
• ICRM
• IDA
• IEA
• IFAD
• IFC
• IFRCS
• IHO
• ILO
• IMF
• IMO
• ITUC
• Interpol
• IOC
• IOM
• ISO
• ITU
• MINURSO
• NATO
• NC
• NEA
• NIB
• NSG
• OAS (observer)
• OECD
• OPCW
• OSCE
• PCA
• PFP
• UN
• UNCTAD
• UNESCO
• UNHCR
• UNIDO
• UNIKOM
• UNITAR
• UNMEE
• UNMIBH
• UNMIK
• UNMOGIP
• UNMOP
• UNOMIG
• UNTAET
• UNTSO
• UPU
• WEU (observer)
• WFTU
• WHO
• WIPO
• WMO
• WTrO
• Zangger Committee

Sub-national government participation

Åland Islands

• Unrepresented United Nations

See also

• Finland under Swedish rule
• Grand Duchy of Finland
• Finland–NATO relations
• Politics of Finland
• Arctic policy of Finland
• Ministry for Foreign Affairs (Finland)
• List of diplomatic missions in Finland
• Visa requirements for Finnish citizens
• Pulp mill conflict between Argentina and Uruguay (for the conflict over the installation of a pulp mill by the Finnish company Botnia in Uruguay, across the Uruguay River)

Sources

• Volanen, Risto (2017). Suomen synty (in Finnish). Helsingissä: Kustannusosakeyhtiö Otava. ISBN978-951-1-31053-2.